1920s america essay

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The Roaring Twenties

By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 28, 2023 | Original: April 14, 2010

The Roaring Twenties was a period in American history of dramatic social, economic and political change. For the first time, more Americans lived in cities than on farms. The nation’s total wealth more than doubled between 1920 and 1929, and gross national product (GNP) expanded by 40 percent from 1922 to 1929. This economic engine swept many Americans into an affluent “consumer culture” in which people nationwide saw the same advertisements, bought the same goods, listened to the same music and did the same dances. Many Americans, however, were uncomfortable with this racy urban lifestyle, and the decade of Prohibition brought more conflict than celebration. But for some, the Jazz Age of the 1920s roared loud and long, until the excesses of the Roaring Twenties came crashing down as the economy tanked at the decade’s end.

Flappers: The 'New Woman'

Perhaps the most familiar symbol of the “Roaring Twenties” is probably the flapper : a young woman with bobbed hair and short skirts who drank, smoked and said “unladylike” things, in addition to being more sexually “free” than previous generations. In reality, most young women in the 1920s did none of these things (though many did adopt a fashionable flapper wardrobe ), but even those women who were not flappers gained some unprecedented freedoms.

They could vote at last: The 19th Amendment to the Constitution had guaranteed that right in 1920, though it would be decades before Black women in the South could fully exercise their right to vote without Jim Crow segregation laws.

Millions of women worked in blue-collar jobs, as well as white-collar jobs (as stenographers, for example) and could afford to participate in the burgeoning consumer economy. The increased availability of birth-control devices such as the diaphragm made it possible for women to have fewer children.

In 1912, an estimated 16 percent of American households had electricity; by the mid-1920s, more than 60 percent did. And with this electrification came new machines and technologies like the washing machine, the freezer and the vacuum cleaner eliminated some of the drudgeries of household work.

Did you know? Because the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act did not make it illegal to drink alcohol, only to manufacture and sell it, many people stockpiled liquor before the ban went into effect. Rumor had it that the Yale Club in New York City had a 14-year supply of booze in its basement.

Fashion, Fads and Film Stars

During the 1920s, many Americans had extra money to spend—and spend it they did, on movies, fashion and consumer goods such as ready-to-wear clothing and home appliances like electric refrigerators. In particular, they bought radios.

The first commercial radio station in the United States, Pittsburgh’s KDKA , hit the airwaves in 1920. Two years later Warren G. Harding became the first president to address the nation by radio —and three years later there were more than 500 stations in the nation. By the end of the 1920s, there were radios in more than 12 million households.

People also swarmed to see Hollywood movies: Historians estimate that, by the end of the decades, three-quarters of the American population visited a movie theater every week, and actors like Charlie Chaplin , Gloria Swanson, Rudolph Valentino and Tallulah Bankhead became household names.

But the most important consumer product of the 1920s was the automobile . Low prices (the Ford Model T cost just $260 in 1924) and generous credit made cars affordable luxuries at the beginning of the decade; by the end, they were practically necessities.

By 1929 there was one car on the road for every five Americans. Meanwhile, an economy of automobiles was born: Businesses like service stations and motels sprang up to meet drivers’ needs—as did the burgeoning oil industry .

The Jazz Age

Cars also gave young people the freedom to go where they pleased and do what they wanted. (Some pundits called them “bedrooms on wheels.”) What many young people wanted to do was dance: the Charleston, the cake walk, the black bottom and the flea hop were popular dances of the era.

Jazz bands played at venues like the Savoy and the Cotton Club in New York City and the Aragon in Chicago ; radio stations and phonograph records (100 million of which were sold in 1927 alone) carried their tunes to listeners across the nation. Some older people objected to jazz music’s “vulgarity” and “depravity” (and the “moral disasters” it supposedly inspired), but many in the younger generation loved the freedom they felt on the dance floor.

The novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald chronicled the hedonism and excitement of the Jazz Age—Fitzgerald once claimed that the 1920s were “the most expensive orgy in history”—while other writers, artists, musicians and designers ushered in a new era of experimental Art Deco and modernist creativity.

Prohibition Era

During the 1920s, some freedoms were expanded while others were curtailed. The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1919, had banned the manufacture and sale of “intoxicating liquors,” and at 12 a.m. on January 16, 1920, the federal Volstead Act closed every tavern, bar and saloon in the United States. From then on, it was illegal to sell any “intoxication beverages” with more than 0.5 percent alcohol.

This drove the liquor trade underground—now, instead of ordinary bars, people simply went to nominally illegal speakeasies, where liquor was controlled by bootleggers, racketeers and other organized crime figures such as Chicago gangster Al Capone . (Capone reportedly had 1,000 gunmen and half of Chicago’s police force on his payroll.)

To many middle-class white Americans, Prohibition was a way to assert some control over the unruly immigrant masses who crowded the nation’s cities. For instance, to the so-called “Drys,” beer was known as “Kaiser brew.” Drinking was a symbol of all they disliked about the modern city, and eliminating alcohol would, they believed, turn back the clock to an earlier and more comfortable time

Immigration and Racism in the 1920s

Prohibition was not the only source of social tension during the 1920s. An anti- Communist “Red Scare” in 1919 and 1920 encouraged a widespread nativist and anti-immigrant hysteria. This led to the passage of an extremely restrictive immigration law, the National Origins Act of 1924 , which set immigration quotas that excluded some people (Eastern Europeans and Asians) in favor of others (Northern Europeans and people from Great Britain, for example).

Immigrants were hardly the only targets in this decade. The Great Migration of Black Americans from the rural South to Northern cities and the increasing visibility of Black culture—jazz and blues music, for example, and the literary movement known as the Harlem Renaissance —discomfited some white Americans. Millions of people, not just in the South but across the country, joined the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s.

By the middle of the decade, the KKK had two million members, many of whom believed the Klan represented a return to all the “values” that the fast-paced, city-slicker Roaring Twenties were trampling. More specifically, the 1920s represented economic and political uplift for Black Americans that threatened the social hierarchy of Jim Crow oppression. 

Early Civil Rights Activism

During this decade, Black Americans sought stable employment, better living conditions and political participation. Many who migrated to the North found jobs in the automobile, steel, shipbuilding and meatpacking industries. But with more work came more exploitation.

In 1925, civil rights activist A. Philip Randolph founded the first predominantly Black labor union , the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters , to draw attention to the discriminatory hiring practices and working conditions for Blacks. And as housing demands increased for Black people in the North, so did discriminatory housing practices that led to a rise of urban ghettos, where Black Americans—excluded from white neighborhoods—were relegated to inadequate, overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions.

Black Americans battled for political and civil rights throughout the Roaring Twenties and beyond. The NAACP launched investigations into Black disenfranchisement in the 1920 presidential election, as well as surges of white mob violence, such as the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921.

The NAACP also pushed for the passage of the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill, a law to make lynching a federal crime, but it was defeated by a Senate filibuster in 1922. A political milestone for Black Americans finally occurred when Oscar De Priest , a Chicago Republican , became the first Black congressman since Reconstruction to be elected to the House of Representatives in 1928.

The Roaring Twenties ushered in several demographic shifts, or what one historian called a “cultural Civil War” between city-dwellers and small-town residents, Protestants and Catholics, Blacks and whites, “New Women” and advocates of old-fashioned family values.

But coming immediately after the hardships of World War I and the Spanish flu epidemic , the Roaring Twenties also gave many middle-class Americans an unprecedented taste of freedom, unbridled fun and upward economic mobility unsurpassed in U.S. history.

What Caused the Roaring Twenties? Not the End of a Pandemic (Probably). Smithsonian Magazine . The Roaring Twenties. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . The Roaring 20s. PBS: American Experience .

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1920s in america: a decade of roar and silence, an essay: the turbulent 1920’s – roaring or snoring.

The 1920s, often dubbed the “ Roaring Twenties ,” was a decade of significant change, progress, and contradiction in American society. The period is frequently visualized through the lens of flapper dancers, jazz music, speakeasies, and economic prosperity. Yet, these lively portrayals must be weighed against the quieter, less flamboyant, yet equally defining elements of the era, which saw the tightening of immigration laws, the rise of nativism, and rural isolationism. Given the diverse and multifaceted nature of the 1920s, the question arises: was this era truly “roaring,” or was it also “snoring” in parts?

Roaring: An Era of Cultural and Economic Exuberance

From the vantage point of popular culture, the 1920s was undeniably roaring. The jazz age brought about a music revolution, with artists like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington defining an entirely new American sound. The Charleston and the shimmy, popular dances of the time, allowed many to express their newfound freedoms in flapper dresses and bobbed haircuts.

Economically, the country was booming. With the end of World War I, the U.S. emerged as a leading global power with a burgeoning economy. The stock market saw unprecedented growth, and many considered this a never-ending ascent to prosperity. The automobile, once a luxury, became commonplace, symbolized by Ford’s Model T. Radios, movies, and household appliances began to shape daily American life, marking the dawn of a consumerist culture.

Snoring: Underlying Tensions and Restrictive Changes

However, beneath the energetic surface of the ’20s, one could hear the steady drone of societal unease. The decade began with the enactment of the 18th Amendment, which ushered in the era of Prohibition. While intended to curb societal ills associated with alcohol, Prohibition paradoxically fostered organized crime, bootlegging, and underground bars called speakeasies.

In the political realm, the Red Scare, or fear of communist influence, led to the Palmer Raids and widespread suspicion of immigrants. The 1924 Immigration Act severely limited the number of newcomers, especially from Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia, reflecting a resurgence in nativist sentiments.

Racial tensions simmered throughout the decade. The Great Migration saw a significant movement of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities, leading to racial tensions and riots in places like Chicago and Tulsa. The Ku Klux Klan also experienced a revival, not just in the South but across the nation.

In addition, the urban-rural divide widened. While cities thrived, rural areas felt left behind. The Scopes Trial of 1925, which put evolutionary theory on trial, underscored this cultural divide between urban modernists and rural traditionalists.

Conclusion: A Complex Mélange

The 1920s cannot be pinned down as merely roaring or snoring; it was a tumultuous blend of both. The exuberant cultural expressions and economic boom were juxtaposed against profound societal tensions and nativist retreats. The Roaring Twenties was as much about flappers and jazz as it was about the KKK and Prohibition.

To fully understand and appreciate the 1920s, one must acknowledge its dualities. By doing so, we gain insight not only into a unique decade in American history but also into the inherent contradictions that often define human progress. The 1920s serves as a compelling testament to America’s capacity for both dazzling progress and deep introspection.

Class Notes on the Turbulent 20’s – Roaring or Snoring?

The 1920’s were an odd time. On one hand we called it the roaring 20 ’s. America experienced a time of great wealth and new modern ideas. The role of women changed, sports and entertainment stars were celebrated and modern technology changed America’s landscape. On the other hand, however, America remained fiercely conservative and religious. We feared public dissent and rural America attempted to turn back the clock of progress. The reality is that America was a divided nation.

While the US was at war with the Triple Alliance many citizens opposed the war. The government felt that opposition to government policies in time of war threatened our national security. Restrictive laws such as the Espionage and Sedition Acts were passed in order to silence opposition. Many outspoken people were jailed. It was a time of great national crisis and the Constitution was thoroughly tested.

A. What were the Espionage and Sedition Acts? (1917) 1. Persons who commit the following acts may be fined up to $10,000 and/or jailed for up to 20 years: a. willfully cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny or refusal of duty in the military forces . (Espionage Act) b. prohibited disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive remarks about the form of government, flag or uniform of the United States. It even prohibited the opposition to the purchase of war bonds. (not investment advice!) (Sedition Act)

B. What was the result of the Espionage Acts during World War I?

1. Eugene V. Debs, arrested and convicted for opposing the war, 10 years. Gained over a million votes in a run for President while he was in prison. 2. Charles Schenck, member of the Socialist Party, sentenced to 15 years for publishing pamphlets urging citizens to refuse to participate in the draft. He called the draft slavery, among other things.

C. How were the Espionage and Sedition Acts challenged?

(Schenck v The United States) 1. Charles Schenck was arrested for violating the Espionage Act, passed by Congress in 1914. The Espionage Act made it illegal to defame the government or do anything that might retard the war effort. Schenck, a member of the Socialist Party, opposed the war and printed and distributed pamphlets urging citizens to oppose the draft which he likened to slavery. Schenck claimed his first amendment rights were violated. 2. The court ruled against Schenck saying that the Espionage Act did not violate the first amendment and that in times of war the government may place reasonable limitations on freedom of speech. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes outlined the courts opinion by explaining that when a “clear and present danger” existed such as shouting fire in a crowded theater, freedom of speech may be limited.

Even though things like the Espionage and Sedition Act occurred the US still became a more modern, faster and wealthier nation.

The 1920’s were a time of great social change characterized by apparent prosperity, new ideas, and personal freedom. Known as the “roaring twenties” America was reacting to the depression of the World War. It was like a giant party. New technology, new ideas and great change. Yet under the surface the same conservative values still flourished. The economic boom of the era was short-lived, but most of the social changes were lasting.

 What were some of the manners and moral changes that occurred?

1. America’s population generally shifted from rural areas to more urban ones.

More than half of the nations population now lived in cities and towns.

2. Urban communities life was now unquestionably lively and stimulating. There were many things to see-museums, art exhibits, plays, athletic events, trade expositions, and the like.

3. New ideas in science were examined and often accepted. Of course this was the case in the cities more so than in the small towns. In small town America most people remained relatively conservative. (See  Scopes Monkey Trial ) People now tended to be judged on their accomplishments rather than on their social background.

As life in the United States began to undergo changes, many felt the gnawing insecurity associated with change. The heroic person who could face the trials of competition or the dangers of the unknown became larger than life. The hero had come up against the strongest adversaries and won. For people living in uncertain times, the hero was proof that a brave and strong-willed man or woman could win out over fears of the unknown or the impossible.

What qualities seem to have been idolized in the 1920’s?

1. Writers Speak for the twenties

A. F. Scott Fitzgerald published  This Side Of Paradise and The Great Gatsby. He won instant acclaim as the spokesman for the twenties generation. In these novels and others, he described the confusion and tragedy caused by a frantic search for material success. B. Ernest Hemingway expressed disgust with prewar codes of behavior and the glorification of war. He also developed a clear, straightforward prose that set a new, tough, “hard-boiled” literary style

2. Sport Heroes

A. Babe Ruth – Perhaps the greatest baseball player who ever lived. He led the Yankees to seven world series and his record for Home Runs (Total and in a season – 60) stood for years. Ruth was a media icon and fan favorite. B. Harold Edward “Red” Grange – College football hero, this running back drew tens of thousands to watch him play and helped popularize college football. C. Jack Dempsey – One of the greatest heavyweight boxers of all time. Lost a dramatic title match to Gene Tunney. D. Bill Tilden and Helen Wills –Tennis champions who epitomized grace and poise. These star athletes helped popularize the sport of tennis. E. Johnny Weismuller – Olympic gold medal winning swimmer who later starred in Hollywood as Tarzan Lord of the Jungle.

3. Other important Heroes

A. Charles A. Lindbergh –He flew a nonstop flight from New York to Paris in thirty-three and a half hours. He was the man who epitomized heroism in the twenties. Lindbergh became a world and national hero who characterized courage and doing the impossible. B. Louis Armstrong –a trumpeter who played the first jazz heard north of Mason-Dixon line. C. W. E. B. Du Bois –founder of the NAACP and worked hard to improve the lives of blacks in America.

How Did the Role of Women Change in the 1920’s?

During World War 1, women served their country in almost every possible capacity. They took jobs in steel foundries, chemical plants, and munitions factories. Many went overseas as nurses in the newly created Army Corps of Nurses. Their experiences away from home and traditional women’s work gave them a strong moral argument for the right to vote. The many tactics of the women and the shameful way they were treated finally forced Congress to deal with the issue. President Wilson, finally declared himself in favor of woman suffrage and the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified on August 26 th 1920.

Many women’s styles changed as well. The popular hair style of the time was for women’s hair to be cut short into a bob. These modern women were known as “flappers.”

Between 1910 and 1930 the proportion of women in the labor force remained at about 20 percent. However, there was a notable change in the kinds of work that some women did. The number of female cooks, dress makers, household servants, and farm hands dropped. The number of women doctors, bankers, lawyers, police and probation officer, social workers, and hairdressers rose.

For all the changes in status during the twenties, it was still generally accepted-even by most women-that “woman’s place is in the home.” Men should earn more than women, it was thought, because usually they supported wives and children. Women workers generally were single. In some states, women teachers who married lost their jobs.

SCOPES MONKEY TRIAL

he 1920’s was not all “roaring” as we shall see. There were many, especially those in power who preached conservatism and moderation. America turned towards the right, we were a religious god fearing nation. This religious traditionalism brought about serious constitutional questions, ones that have yet to fully answered.

The Scopes Monkey Trial   – 1925 – In 1925 in Dayton Tennessee a group of teachers decided to test a law called the Butler Law. The Butler law made it illegal to teach the theory of evolution and instead mandated the biblical interpretation of creationism. The teachers felt that academic freedom and integrity as well as separation of church and state was at stake. Twenty four year old science teacher and football coach John T. Scopes would teach the class. Knowing he would be arrested Scopes taught the class and set into motion one of the most important trials in American history.

Scopes was arrested, as expected, for violating the Butler Law. At the ensuing trial William Jennings Bryan (Yes, the Populist guy!) acted as special prosecutor. World famous criminal defense lawyer Clarence Darrow defended Scopes. The trial raged on for days. The judge did not allow any of Darrow’s scientists to testify and public sentiment in the Bible Belt was against Scopes. Bryan portrayed Darrow as an agnostic and atheist. In desperation Darrow put Bryan himself on the stand. Darrow brilliantly was able to get Bryan to admit that the word of the bible is not literal, it was interpreted. This seemed to destroy the whole case. Darrow asked for immediate judgment and when the jury came back Darrow was shocked…he had lost! The judge levied the minimum fine possible ($100) against Scopes. Later that year the Scopes conviction was overturned on a technicality.

What did all this prove? Well for one it showed the religious and conservative nature of America. It also displayed the vast differences between the big cities and the small towns. The big city newspapers covering the trial scoffed at the Butler Law as small minded and archaic. In the cities Scopes was a hero but in Dayton Tennessee he was a criminal.

America was left with many questions. Were we to be a modern nation, the nation of Lindbergh and the roaring twenties or were we to be the nation of religious right wing conservatives? Only time would tell.

US History: Resources by Decade: 1920s

1920s: resources from database u.s. history in context (gale).

• U.S. History in Context (Gale): 1920s This link contains a variety of content (e.g. an overview, academic journals, primary sources, images, references) on the 1920s.

Barnett, Thomas P. (American architect, 1870-1929), Role: painter. (Work: 1922, Era: CE, Image Date: 1989). Riches of the Mines, detail view. [mural paintings (visual works)].  https://library.artstor.org/public/SS7732236_7732236_12897144

Ebooks and Print Books: USA in 1920s

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Echoes of Harlem: Poetic Revolution in 1920s America

This essay about the Harlem Renaissance poets explores the profound impact of their work during the 1920s cultural awakening in Harlem, New York. Amidst the vibrant backdrop of jazz and social upheaval, poets like Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, and Jean Toomer emerged as influential voices of the African American community. Their poetry served as a mirror reflecting the struggles and aspirations of Black people, challenging societal norms and advocating for justice and equality. Through their words, they celebrated Black identity, confronted racial prejudice, and inspired a generation to resist oppression with courage and resilience. Beyond their individual contributions, the collective spirit of these poets defined the Harlem Renaissance, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to inspire and provoke thought in contemporary society.

How it works

In the bustling streets of 1920s Harlem, amidst the pulse of jazz and the whirl of the Cotton Club, a profound cultural awakening unfolded. It was a time when the African American community, despite the shackles of segregation and discrimination, found its voice through the power of poetry. This renaissance, known as the Harlem Renaissance, marked a pivotal moment in history, where the brilliance of Black creativity shone brightly against the backdrop of societal turmoil.

Central to this renaissance were the poets, whose words danced like flames in the hearts of their readers, igniting a passion for change and a celebration of Black identity.

Langston Hughes, often hailed as the “Bard of Harlem,” crafted verses that served as both a mirror reflecting the struggles of the Black community and a beacon of hope illuminating the path towards liberation. His poem “The Weary Blues” echoed the melancholy strains of life in Harlem, while “Dream Variations” soared with the aspirations of a people yearning to break free from the chains of oppression.

In the hallowed halls of literary discourse, Claude McKay’s poetry reverberated with a fierce defiance, challenging the status quo with every stanza. His words, like fiery arrows, pierced through the veil of racial prejudice, demanding justice and equality for all. In “If We Must Die,” McKay rallied his fellow African Americans to stand firm in the face of hatred and violence, inspiring a generation to resist oppression with unwavering courage.

Countee Cullen, with his exquisite craftsmanship and profound introspection, wove tapestries of verse that spoke to the soul of a nation grappling with its conscience. In “Heritage,” Cullen grappled with the weight of history, exploring the tangled roots of identity and belonging with a poet’s grace and a scholar’s insight. Meanwhile, “Incident” peeled back the layers of racial trauma, revealing the raw humanity that lies beneath the surface of prejudice and bigotry.

Jean Toomer, though a lesser-known figure in the pantheon of Harlem Renaissance poets, left an indelible mark on the movement with his groundbreaking work, “Cane.” Through a tapestry of prose, poetry, and drama, Toomer painted a vivid portrait of Black life in the Jim Crow South, exposing the contradictions and complexities of race and identity with unflinching honesty. His words, like the stalks of sugarcane that inspired his title, were at once sweet and bitter, nourishing the soul even as they drew blood from the wounds of history.

Yet, beyond their individual brilliance, it was the collective spirit of the Harlem Renaissance poets that truly defined the movement. In the smoky cabarets and dimly lit parlors of Harlem’s cultural scene, they found not only inspiration but also solidarity, supporting one another as they navigated the treacherous waters of literary fame. Together, they forged a legacy that continues to inspire generations of poets and artists, reminding us of the enduring power of creativity to transform hearts and minds.

As we look back on the Harlem Renaissance poets and their enduring legacy, let us not simply admire their words from a distance but heed the call to action that echoes through their poetry. For in their verses, we find not only beauty and truth but also a challenge to confront the injustices that still plague our society today. In their words, we find hope for a future where all are truly equal, and where the human spirit is free to soar unbound by the chains of prejudice and hate.

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Evaluation of the 1920’s in the United States History Essay

Introduction, the republican government, changes in attitude.

The United States of America has gradually been growing and developing as a unique, strong, and independent nation. While the history of the US cannot be called clean of controversy or bad decisions, it is generally agreed that the country is going in the right direction, with steady strides towards progressive policy and government rule. Speaking of the many periods of American history, the 1920s can be noted as a rather interesting period, as it brought a variety of changes with it, both positive and negative. The decade introduced America to an array of new cultural trends, traditions, and customs, as well as allowing the people to financially prosper in the booming economy.

This period can also be classified as a time for recovery from World War I, as people were ready to lead normal lives again. Curiously, however, this period is regarded with the mixed sentiment in historic overviews, much to the credit of the ruling party at the time and the actions taken by the country’s president. Some consider the roaring 20’s to be a progressive period, allowing the country to develop in new, unforeseen ways and give people a much-needed period of peace, while others regard it as a starting point for the spread of conservatism in modern America. The statement leading to the creation of this paper is: “Despite popular conceptions, the 1920s is best described as a conservative era”. I think the statement is true and warrants a deeper look at the political, social, and economic landscape of that time period. In this work, an attempt to explain the conservative tendencies of the 1920s will be made.

The 1920s were a period in the history of the USA when the democratic party lost its influence over the government, and the republicans had a period of active work. The American population had a rather extensive period of reform previously, and the counteraction to that process manifested in the politics of the ’20s. The three presidents of this period were Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, none of which are explicitly remembered for their policy or competent management of the country. The politics of the time were mostly focused on returning to the sense of normalcy and the pre-war state of the country, with more conservatives approaches to leadership and policy (Jarmul, 2006).

One of the major points of development in the decade was the freedoms and expansions given to business entities. Corporate growth was heavily encouraged, and the actions of big market players were unrestricted by legislation. This allows the businesses to prosper and develop, at the expense of the working class and the citizenry of the country. On the defense issues and foreign policies, the country similarly took a more cautious and fearful approach, as immigration was severely restricted. Following World War I, tensions regarding other countries rose, and the idea of immigrants taking people’s jobs and muddying the culture of the country took root. The legislation used in this period, therefore, sought to limit the number of new immigrants by controlling their ability to enter the country, which served to close America off from the rest of the world.

Other modern practices and tendencies were also strongly opposed, as they were seen in a largely negative light by both the population and the people in positions of power. One of the more well-known means of constricting the population was the Prohibition laws, enforced to ban the consumption of alcohol in the country (Jarmul, 2006). Not only were they seen unfavorably by the people, but they also opened up a lot of opportunities for illegal business. With the ban on alcoholic drinks, many saw them as a way to make profits, starting an illegal market and selling cheap alcohol for high prices. The uptick in contrafact products not only endangered the public but also worked to nullify the benefits the law could have brought with it. Another way in which the conservative agenda manifested was the movement to prohibit schoolbooks and science from being taught and distributed.

Religious folk saw scientific advancement and changes in educational practices as an affront to religion and sought to enforce a more secular Christian view of the world. This effort not only set the generations of Americans back in terms of education but also worked to delegitimize the findings of scientific studies and professionals. Ideas about such topics as biology and Darwin’s theory of evolution were looked down upon by the rural conservative majority, and the common by that time knowledge of the origin of species was largely banned in America (Jarmul, 2006). The inability to let go of religious tradition in favor of factual evidence and a newer perspective contributed to both developing and reinforcing existing biases of the American populace, which led to a variety of negative consequences down the line.

In conclusion, I would say that the 1920s were a rather conservative period in American history, largely due to the presidential lead at the time and the need for the country to recover from the effects of the first World War. When the people desire normalcy, the move towards conservative thought is expected, as people desire to take back the things they found to be normal before a period of unrest. The policies of the American government at the time favored the development of business interest and economic growth while paying far less attention to social policy and the good of the common people. Taxation cuts, encouragement of monopolies, and other benefits were granted to companies, allowing them to expand and occupy the market. In terms of the outward policy, the 1920s were known for their anti-immigration fearmongering and the closing off of the country.

The attempts to limit foreign immigration sought to increase the public tensions in regard to other countries and reinforce the myths of American exceptionalism. Anti-progress, anti-scientific movements were also seen, with the emergence of conservative Christian folk, who saw rapid advancements in science and technology as a threat to their understanding of the world. Actions to limit the availability of scientific information were made, and a regression back to the more religion-based forms of education was also evident. Overall, while the country was exposed to a variety of new cultures and trends during this time, its core trajectory became far more conservative than before.

Jarmul, D. (2006). A Turn to the Right: Conservatism Grows in America in the 1920s . VOA. Web.

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Available to teachers only as part of the teaching the roaring twentiesteacher pass, teaching the roaring twenties teacher pass includes:.

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• Why did the Republican Party dominate national politics during the decade?
• What was attractive about "normalcy"?
• What was wrong with the Democrats?
• What lesson might political parties learn from their dysfunction?
• Why do political parties periodically find it difficult to avoid this sort of internal division?
• What statistics support these conclusions?
• Must “pro-business” policies always lead to these sorts of divergent results (economic growth, maldistribution of income)? Why or why not?
• Was it the fault of Harding or of his pro-business policies? Explain.

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A 1920s Lesson for Today’s History Textbook Wars

T he teaching of history has become a flashpoint in the culture wars . But while the battle is fierce, it’s not new. An earlier round in the conflict in the 1920s — over the teaching of the American Revolution — indicates that it will be crucial for historians to weigh in loudly and forcefully during the current debate. That will give them the space to continue to teach the most accurate, up-to-date version of U.S. History and prevent forces that fundamentally don’t understand the job of historians from shaping what American children learn about the past.

In the late 19th century, the writing of American history was dominated by good writers who were not trained historians. They idealized the Founders and presented the American Revolution as heroic and fully justified.

After 1900, the writing of history shifted to professionals trained in recently established history Ph.D. programs. They replaced the one-sided, simplistic interpretation of the Revolution with discussion of the complexities behind the revolt.

Accustomed to the comforting pre-1900 hagiography, critics — including newspaper columnists, politicians, and patriotic organizations — considered the new interpretation an affront. In the early 1920s, they took to the attack against leading textbooks. Critics decried how the historian-authors questioned the motives of revolutionary leaders as well as their claims against British tyranny. The attacks resonated with much of the public in the wake of the emphasis on “100% Americanism” during World War I and the post-war “Red Scare.”

In 1921-1922, Charles Grant Miller, a columnist with the Chicago Herald and Examiner wrote a series of columns that targeted eight textbooks for allegedly unpatriotic, pro-British presentations of the Revolution. The Herald and Examiner was owned by newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst and other papers in the Hearst chain reprinted the columns. They were also edited and printed as a pamphlet. Other newspapers reported on Miller’s allegations.

As the furor grew, anxious Americans tuned in to what their children were learning. New York, Chicago, and other cities began investigating the history texts used in their schools. School boards and citizens’ committees started hunting for pro-British, “unpatriotic” interpretations of the Revolution. Patriotic groups also joined the fray. The campaign was, in the words of historian Joseph Moreau , a “revolt against the professors” who were peddling “Anglo-Saxonism.”

Read More: Why Laws Targeting Critical Race Theory Would Also Prevent Me From Teaching World War II

By 1923, a dozen popular texts were on at least one list of suspect books.

The public outrage prompted state legislatures to weigh in. A 1923 Oregon statute required school officials to buy only books that “adequately stress the services rendered and the sacrifices made by the founders of the Republic, which shall inculcate love for and loyalty to our country.” Wisconsin passed a similar law while other states adopted less sweeping legislation. Even some states that didn’t pass new laws, like New York and California, came close.

The textbook reports issued by investigating groups and the laws themselves stopped just short of banning specific books or advocating for it, but they did lay out criteria for schools to follow in adopting history textbooks. Educators began using the discretion recommended in the textbook reports or mandated by the new laws to select history books.

The uproar caught historians off guard. 

They had never been attacked in such a broad way like this. It forced the profession to appeal to the public, explaining just what it was that historians did, why it was important, why they needed independence, and why objectivity mattered so much. Historians like Charles H. Ward and Claude Van Tyne wrote letters to the editor and op-ed pieces defending the work under attack and asserting that critics had cherry-picked passages, pulled things out of context, and distorted books’ messages. 

The American Historical Association took the lead in the fight with strong public resolution in 1923 denouncing “agitation” and “propaganda” by irresponsible newspapers and politicians.  “Attempts, however well meant, to foster national arrogance and boastfulness and indiscriminate worship of national ‘heroes’ can only tend to promote a harmful pseudo-patriotism,” said the statement. The assertion that thousands of school teachers and school officials are “so stupid or disloyal” that they would give students treasonable books is “inherently and obviously absurd.” The AHA’s resolve steeled historians and educators and got a good deal of press attention.

In 1923, Pulitzer Prize-winning professor James Truslow Adams took to the Atlantic Monthly to defend the texts. He argued that historians were seeking truth and balance and took the forefathers off their pedestals to present them accurately as “living, struggling men.”

Three years later, Smith College historian Harold U. Faulkner accused critics of peddling “the old, moth-eaten, discredited and dangerous ‘nationalistic interpretation of history.’”

Even so, a few historians revised their textbooks to eliminate errors or to clarify points that the critics had misinterpreted or misrepresented. Some just stated their interpretations more directly. 

David S. Muzzey’s 1920 book An American History had made several critics’ lists for explaining that “there were two opinions as to colonial rights and British oppression.” This assertion about the complexity of issues and motivations leading up to the Revolution made it a lightning rod for critics.

In 1925, Muzzey issued a revised edition . The Revolution was “an armed protest against the invasion of the British Parliament of rights long cherished by the American colonies,” the new book said, leaving no doubt. The new edition concluded that “the separation” owed “chiefly to the conduct of King George III” — including promoting ministers who favored confrontation, pressuring Parliament for coercive acts, refusing to compromise, and “ignoring impassioned warnings” from American patriots. Gone was the complexity of the 1920 edition. 

Despite the revisions to books, several Hearst newspapers and a few independent papers continued to stoke the fury. But many others soon began opposing text censorship. Their editorial comments echoed what historians were saying about their role and need for independence. 

“Is the truth to be suppressed just because it happens to be unpleasant to recall and discreditable to some times and some people?” asked a 1925 Washington Post editorial. The public was tired of hearing historians’ critics claim that “history is something that can be cut and shaped to suit the purposes of the moment," said influential columnist Walter Lippman in his 1928 book American Inquisitors .

Read More: How Ron DeSantis Could Wind Up Dictating Your Kids’ Textbooks

Dixon Ryan Fox, president of the New York State Historical Association, provided a final assessment in an essay entitled “ Americanizing American History. ” "[P]atriotism is insistently prescribed as an ingredient of history teaching in many countries," he noted, and the attack on historians had been intended to force that in the U.S. He argued, however, that, thanks to lax enforcement of new laws and fading public attention to the issue, critics had only succeeded in compelling historians to make changes that they should have made (and probably would have made) anyway. But Fox warned the attack showed that “propagandist societies or politicians anxious to capture the votes of groups with special interests” could disrupt and discredit historians’ work.

Fox was right. The question of who controls history in the schools would appear periodically over the next century, including in our own day.

The struggles of a century ago show that historians need to keep explaining their work and role to the public. That includes defending their right and obligation to present research-based, objective history — and to rethink historical understandings in the light of new evidence, insights, and perspectives. Such communication is crucial to enabling historians to present young Americans with the best understanding of our past, including its good chapters, its bad chapters, and everything in between.

Failing to make an affirmative case for good history, by contrast, risks politicians, self-designated patriots, interest groups, and pundits discrediting historians, sidelining objective history, and putting history to use to further their own agendas. 

Bruce W. Dearstyne has taught history at SUNY Albany, SUNY Potsdam, and Russell Sage College. He was also a professor at the University of Maryland College of Information Studies. His most recent books are The Spirit of New York: Defining Events in the Empire State's History (2nd ed., 2022); The Crucible of Public Policy: New York Courts in the Progressive Era (2022); and Progressive New York: Change and Reform in the Empire State, 1900-1920 – A Reader (2024).

Made by History takes readers beyond the headlines with articles written and edited by professional historians. Learn more about Made by History at TIME here . Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of TIME editors .

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Write to Bruce W. Dearstyne / Made by History at [email protected]

Home — Essay Samples — History — 1920S — The Main Factors of the US Economic Boom of 1920s

The Main Factors of The Us Economic Boom of 1920s

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