water resources research paper topics

167 Water Essay Topics & Research Questions about Water

Looking for a research title about water shortage, conservation, pollution, or treatment? Whatever your area of interest is, you will definitely find a good writing idea in this list of titles for water essays! Topics we’ve collected here are fresh, unique, and current. Go ahead and read them below!

🏆 Best Essay Topics on Water

💡 simple water essay titles, 👍 good water research topics & essay examples, 📌 easy water essay topics, 🎓 most interesting water topics for project, ❓ research questions about water.

• Water Pollution Causes, Effects and Solutions
• The Water Cycle and the Impact of Human Activity on It
• Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health
• Don’t Ship Air and Don’t Ship Water Strategies
• Water Accessibility and Quality
• Water and Soil Management
• Water Quality and Contamination Experiment Report
• Activation Energy for Viscous Flow of Water, Acetone, Toluene, and o-Xylene The aim of the research was to investigate the hypothesis that the activation energy of a substance depends on intermolecular forces that arise in this substance.
• Water in the Atmosphere The relative humidity of air can be changed by changing either the temperature of the thermodynamic system in question or the pressure in the system under consideration.
• The Importance of Water for Body Water is important for all the structural elements of our body and their efficient functioning. A person is not able to feel healthy if he does not consume water.
• Water and Its Properties Water is the most abundant liquid on the universe comprising over 70% of earth’s composition. It exists in three forms namely liquid, solid, and gaseous states.
• Water Scarcity as Effect of Climate Change Climate change is the cause of variability in the water cycle, which also reduces the predictability of water availability, demand, and quality, aggravating water scarcity.
• Impact of Food Waste and Water Use on Earth The paper explores how food waste and water use affect the food system and how agriculture affects the environment.
• Fiji Water Quality: Biology Lab Experiment Since Fiji water is among the popular brands in the US, it is essential to evaluate whether it is clean, that is, safe for human consumption.
• Basic Functions of Minerals and Water in the Body This paper discusses the functions and sources of minerals, the function of water in the body, and the general effect of dehydration on the body.
• Multidisciplinary Approach to Water Pollution This paper shows how the multidisciplinary approach addresses water pollution as a public health issue. It is important to understand what the model entails.
• Cooling Water System Overview Water towers can reduce temperatures more than any other devices using air only to reject heat hence are more cost-effective.
• The Environmental Impact of Bottled Water This paper examines the real situational effects on production of the bottled water to environmental degradation.
• FIJI Water Company’s Success The business owners of FIJI Water embarked on a very active marketing campaign aimed at the promotion of the water, as well as the establishment and maintenance of FIJI Water’s brand.
• Garbage Pollution’s Impact on Air, Water and Land Garbage pollutes the planet, and to stop this adverse effect, the authorities’ involvement is needed. One solution lies in the plane of economics and politics.
• Water Quality Improvement for Global Health This proposal determines the necessity of water quality from the perspective of global health. The funding will be provided by the government and non-governmental organizations.
• New Evian Water Product and Customers Analysis As the new Evian water product is a more ecological option, customers concerned about the environment could also represent the client base of the product.
• Substances Influence on Water The objective of the experiment will be to find if the freezing rate of water changes when different substances are added.
• Bottled Water Impacts on Environment As the use of bottled water continue to rise steadily around the world, many critics have focused on its impacts on the environment, economy and other social implications related to the use.
• Water Recycling: Why Is It Important? Different countries face varying challenges in as far as provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending with its economic development level and geographic location.
• The Problem of Water Scarcity The paper states that although the problem of scarcity of water is severe, it is crucial to take measures to solve it since they can improve the situation.
• Water: An Often Overlooked Essential Element in Our Environment The freshwater required for growing food and livestock is also in great demand by the large numbers of inhabitants in the world’s cities and towns.
• Bottled Water Impact on Environment This paper seeks to amplify the need for regulation of the used water bottles. It is quite obvious that water bottles are the highest in a number of all bottles thrown away after use.
• Water Intake and Output: Mechanisms of Regulation For healthy function, the human body requires water balance as one of the key mechanisms, where the average daily water intake and output are relatively equal.
• Food and Water Security Management The purpose of this article is to evaluate the current methodologies for addressing food and water security issues and propose sustainable solutions based on scholarly evidence.
• Water Management in Sustainable Engineering The current essay demonstrates the significance of sustainable engineering on the example of wastewater treatment and consequent water reuse.
• Land Usage and Water Quality in Saudi Arabia The effect of land use in Saudi Arabian water quality has intensified the region’s water crisis, causing economic, ecological, and social challenges.
• Studying the Venturi Effect Through Water Flow Calculation The Venturi effect is of particular importance in fluid dynamics, characterizing the pressure drop of a fluid as it flows through narrow spaces.
• Fiji Water Case Study Analysis Brandon Miller aims to establish a business that is the distribution of Fiji water for Monroe and Wayne market areas.
• Glacéau Company: Vitamin Water Ethics The business practice of this paper is the production and sale of vitamin water by Glacéau in which the company states that the water being sold has been “enriched” with vitamins.
• Water Buffalo Days: Growing Up in Vietnam by Nhuong The book Water Buffalo Days: Growing Up in Vietnam by Nhuong tells the story of a young boy in a central village in Vietnam. The story presents unique characteristics of Vietnam society and culture.
• How Access to Clean Water Influences the Problem of Poverty Since people in some developing countries have insufficient water supply even now, they suffer from starvation, lack of hygiene, and water-associated diseases.
• “Bling H2O” Bottled Water in the Australian Market Bling H2O water is the world’s most expensive bottled water. The brand’s creator targeted to sell it to the celebrities who highly esteem their bottled water.
• “Erin Brockovich” Film and 2014 Flint Water Crisis This paper analyzes the movie “Erin Brockovich” and compares it with the current situation in Flint, which started in April 2014.
• Water Pollution in the Florida State The researchers claimed that plastic pollution was caused by the tourists and citizens who live along the coastline and dumping from the industries.
• The Water Shortage Supply in Las Vegas The water shortage supply in Las Vegas is a major problem due to the city’s reliance on Lake Mead and Colorado Rivers, which are drying up due to droughts.
• Effects of Climate Variability on Water Resources, Food Security, and Human Health Evaluating the effects of climate variability on water, food, and health will help identify the areas for improvement and offer solutions to current environmental challenges.
• The Issue of Food and Water Security The global issue for the analysis is food and water security. This is a topical problem nowadays, especially in light of climate change and population growth.
• Solutions for Food and Water Security Issue With many nations encountering food and water security problems, the consequences of such events have become global, giving rise to multiple outcomes this insecurity.
• Pressurized Water Reactors: An Analysis The paper describes the operations of a Pressurised Water Reactors (PWR) plant in-depth, discusses the functions of PWR plants, their advantages and disadvantages.
• Water Quality Assessment. Environmental Impact Maintaining good water quality is essential to human health; thus, the recent decades have outstandingly worsened the water across communities worldwide by pollution.
• Benefits of Water Birth Overview Waterbirth remains to be a controversial approach. The studies examined in this paper provide some evidence for the benefits that waterbirth has.
• Bottled Water: Environmental and Cultural Impact The consumption of bottled water has an impact on society. Appropriate strategies must be implemented to ensure that the hazards associated with bottled water are reduced.
• Water Sector Privatisation in Saudi Arabia The paper explores the decision by the Ministry of Water and Electricity in Saudi Arabia to form the National Water Company to facilitate the privatization process and oversee the regional operations.
• Green Infrastructure in Water Management This paper evaluates the utility of water management in urban areas from the aspect of perception and interpretation of green infrastructure in water management.
• All About Water: Problems and Solutions In addition to explaining water benefits, the paper has also shown that many people globally struggle with water shortages or exposure to contaminated water.
• Biogeochemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Water The most common biogeochemical cycles are carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. The purpose of this paper was to summarize these three cycles.
• Resolutions to Fight Water Scarcity The World Health Organization outlines water scarcity as a global crisis affecting more than 2.8 billion people.
• Environment: There’s Something in the Water Environmental racism hurts the natural image of landscapes and negatively affects the atmosphere and reduces the quality and duration of life for minorities.
• Food and Water Security as Globalization Issues Globalization has several implications for the business environment, among which are the expanded access to resources, and the interdependence of international companies.
• Lake Mattoon: Recreational Site and Water Reservoir Lake Mattoon remains one of Coles county’s best recreation sites and major water reservoirs; it is a big, man-made lake with lush green shores and big fish populations.
• The Problem of Environmental Water Pollution This paper discusses a public health concern by explaining the causes of water pollution, how it affects human communities, and the possible strategies.
• Baxter Water Treatment Plants and Public Health The Baxter Water Treatment Plant is the largest water treatment facility in Philadelphia, supplying about 60 percent of the city’s drinking water.
• First Nations Communities Water Resources Drinking water is by no means an infinite resource, but there are places in the world where women and children spend hours each day just to collect it.
• Changes in the Global Water Cycle Changes in the climate brought about by global warming have a much bigger likelihood of impacting negatively on the global hydrological cycle.
• Water Treatments and Maximum Plant Height The first research question was how different water treatments affect maximum plant height. The experiment involved 12 plants – 6 plants for each type of water.
• Relocation of Solar Power System to Easy Life Water Ventures The paper states that having an effective power source will help the organization operate smoothly and sustainably and increase its reputation.
• Water Scarcity Due to Climate Change This paper focuses on the adverse impact that water scarcity has brought today with the view that water is the most valuable element in running critical processes.
• Water Pollution Effects on Human Health The paper describes the effects of water pollution on human health from the perspective of existing findings on this topic and the assessment of information.
• The Problem of Environmental Pollution: Fresh Water One of the more important concerns that are fast becoming a major threat is pollution and no form of pollution seemed to be bigger than that of freshwater pollution.
• Combating Arsenic Contamination in Water The well known fact is that water is the most valuable natural resource that exists and without which survival of life is impossible.
• Is Bottled Water Dangerous for People and the Environment? The purpose of this paper is to discuss alternative perspectives on bottled water and whether it is dangerous for people and the planet.
• Bottle Water Industry in Current Economic UK Climate The research question is whether bottled water is a necessity or a luxury with regard to the current economic climate in the United Kingdom.
• Protecting the Current and Future Water Supply for Rio de Janiero In the current rate of use, as well as the consensus reached by the governing officials in Rio de Janeiro, there will be enough potable water until 2025.
• Bottled Water Status in the UK With the current economic climate in the UK, the issue of whether bottled water has become a luxury or a necessity.
• Water Resources in Australia: Usage and Management Australia is one of the driest continents in the world. Various governmental and non-governmental institutions have teamed up to face the challenges facing people as far as water is concerned.
• Virtual Water Savings and Trade in Agriculture The idea of virtual water was initially created as a method for assessing how water-rare nations could offer food, clothing, and other water-intensive products to their residents.
• Water Management and Ecology Issues The paper studies water management, its various implications and explains why this area is important on examples of environmental issues.
• Water Scarcity Issue and Environment The paper answers the question why to be worried about running out of drinking water even though the earth’s surface is mostly made of water.
• Water Pollution This essay seeks to examine the concept of water pollution, its causes, effects and solutions to water pollution.
• Human Energy Consumption and Water Power Human energy use is significantly low compared to natural energy flow. Waterpower is not significant in energy flow because it is renewable energy.
• Agriculture, Water, and Food Security in Tanzania This paper evaluates the strategies applicable to the development and further maintenance of agriculture, water, and food security in Tanzania.
• Aspects of Global Pollution of Water Global pollution of water resources has devasting effects on the environment that include the destruction of the ocean ecosystem and biodiversity.
• High-Quality Water Supply in the United States The American community has become more conscious about their health and general physical condition. Consequently, a high-quality water supply stays a priority in many households.
• Assessment: Dubai Electricity and Water Authority As a key component of Dubai’s economy, DEWA is critical in assisting the Emirate’s growth and transition to a zero-economy economy.
• Hyponatremia: How Much Water Do You Actually Need? Some schools, like Mississippi State, do hydration tests before each practice to ensure their players are adequately hydrated.
• Analyzing the Use of Water in Danticat, Roumain, and Marshall The use of water in the three novels Roumain’s “Masters of the Dew,” Danticat’s “Krik? Krak!” and Paul’s “Praise Song for the Widow” has a symbolic meaning.
• Water Pollution and How to Address It A person must protect nature – in particular water resources. After all, the possibilities of water resources are not unlimited and sooner or later, they may end.
• Water Pollution: Effects and Treatment Pollution of water bodies is a serious hazard to humans and the aquatic ecology, and population growth is hastening climate change.
• Examining Solutions for Mitigating the Food and Water Security Issue Hunger, malnutrition, and decreased resource distribution manifest in communities having issues with food and water security, which decreases the well-being of individuals.
• Impact of Water Pollution: Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World Water is a source of life on Earth, and it is one of the very first needs of living beings. It is a vital resource for the development of the economic and social sectors.
• Evaluation of Articles on Food and Water Security The two resources chosen for this discussion pertain to food and water security solutions. The scholarly source is visually distinct from the popular source due to its structure.
• The Clean Water Network Support Statement Fresh water has become one of the most valuable resources in the world, around which regional or even global wars may occur in the future.
• Global Societal Issue: Food and Water Security According to research, food and water security is a pertinent global problem in the current decade, with access to food and water becoming scarce in certain world regions.
• Climate Change and Accessibility to Safe Water The paper discusses climate change’s effect on water accessibility, providing graphs on water scarcity and freshwater use and resources.
• The High Heat Capacity of Water The heat capacity of water greatly affects the planet’s climate. At high temperatures, water absorbs heat, and when it gets colder, it gives it away.
• Exploring the Agenda for Fresh Water Supply in Remote Regions The fundamental thesis of this entire paper is that scientific and technological advances catalyze the development of technologies to deliver fresh water to remote areas of Texas.
• What Is Water-Related Terrorism and How to Cope With It? Water-related terrorism includes damaging government facilities, and since water resources are vital for human existence, it is profitable for terrorists to attack them.
• Whirlpool in the Sea off the Coast of Scotland Near Ayrshire Due to Waste Water Stunning drone images near Lendalfoot in South Ayrshire captured a glimpse of a mammoth whirlpool off the Scottish west coast.
• Fresh Water Toxins: Serious Threat to Health This paper discusses fresh water toxins as a serious threat to health, analyzes Los Angeles drinking water, access to clean water and sanitation.
• Safe Drinking Water: Current Status and Recommendations The study proposes the usage of agricultural waste as a sustainable biosorbent for toxic metal ions removal from contaminated water.
• Essentials of Water in Supporting Biological Systems Water is essential in supporting the biological system in various ways; the properties of water help in understanding its importance.
• Underground Water Contamination in St. Louis Mo City In St. Louis Mo City of Missouri State, contamination of underground water is most likely and that is why the water supply is a subject to government policies.
• Twitter Campaign: Impact of Water Runoff Water runoff can cause flooding, which means property damage and mold formation in damp basements and more. This paper is a twitter campaign about the impact of water runoff.
• Water Pollution of New York City Rivers The aim of the analysis was to assess the effects of CSOs on water quality and the environment at different sites along the Harlem River.
• Water Cooling Tower Construction Site’s Problems The paper highlights three major problems at the construction site. They are security, scheduling, and safety problems.
• Is Bottled Water Safe for Public Health? Bottled water is just water but is marketed in such a way that makes it appear as healthy because it is positioned as “bottles water is healthy”.
• Recent Water Treatment and Production Developments This study attempts to investigate whether inorganic filters are more suitable for industrial and water treatment processes when compared to organic filters.
• Chemistry: Partitioning Coefficient of the Water The partitioning coefficient of the water solutions with of diuron, decadienal, atrazine, fluoranthene, and desethylatrazine compounds are calculated in accordance with the formula.
• Study of Local Water Resources Quality This laboratory report aims to summarize the results obtained during the study oxygen consumption, BOD, and detecting dissolved suspended solids in Hong Kong water.
• Developing Suspension Carbon Nano-Tubes in Water This paper has discussed nano-tubes and suspension as well as stabilization which make use of Multi-Wall-Carbon-Nanotubes by the function of concentrated SDS.
• A Cartographic History of Water Infrastructure and Urbanism in Rome The freshwater available to the city was a huge cultural and economic boon to Roman citizens. Some of this ancient water infrastructure is operational to this day.
• Integrated Water Strategies From Website Water Recycling The website http://waterrecycling.com/ is a front-end of their company showing various services that the company offers in the field of water recycling.
• The Causes of Water Pollution Water pollution is a significant decrease in water resources’ quality due to the ingress of various chemicals and solid waste. The causes of pollution are related to human activities.
• Political Ecology and Water Wars in Bolivia The given critical assessment will primarily focus on bringing a new perspective to the issue from the standpoint of political ecology.
• The Influence of Water on the Growth of Popcorn Plants The information from the study would aid farmers in identifying appropriate seasons to cultivate popcorn plants based on data of meteorological forecasts.
• Boiling Is a Process That Cools the Water This paper tells that bringing water to a boil while making tea is a progression that cools it since the process lessens the overall temperature.
• Water Conservation Practice in Olympia Olympia city has a comprehensive water conservation program that involves many projects. The city puts much effort into the conservation of water.
• Water Quality and Supply The main problem on the way to the solution of environmental issues is a violation of generally accepted rules.
• The Global Water Crisis: Issues and Solutions The water crisis has now been associated with the reduction in food quantity besides the scarcity of safe drinking water.
• Water Conservation Practice in Houston From the treatment of wastewater to the reduction of the consumption of the same Houston is an epitome of the increasing need to conserve resources, especially water.
• Burning Issue of Water Pollution in Washington The problem of polluted drinking water in Washington should be solved immediately despite various obstacles, such as pressure for money, etc.
• Drinking-Water in Third World Countries The shortage of drinking water in countries of Third World and the public controversy, surrounding the issue, illustrates the validity of this thesis better then anything else.
• Underground Water Overdraft in Southern California In California, the overuse of underground water reserves and the resultant overexploitation (overdraft) led to a serious water resources deficit.
• Water and Soil Pollution: Effects on the Environment Water and soil pollution is the process of contaminating water and soil. In this project, we will investigate the apparent main pollutants of the Spring Mill Lake.
• Bottled Water: Culture and Environmental Impact Bottled water as a particular branch of industrial growth in countries throughout the world represents the source of environmental pollution.
• Alternative Energy Sources: A Collaborative Approach in Water Management With the increasingly high prices of gasoline in particular and fossil fuels in general there is a need to find an alternative source of energy.
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Effect on Water Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) constitute one of the largest groups of compounds that produce widespread organic environmental pollution posing a risk to marine biota
• Lack of Water in California as an Environmental Issue California can run out of water because of technological and social problems that affected the region. Defining water resources’ “development” is critically important.
• Water Scarcity in the Middle East The Arab region has always had issues with the water supply but as the population continues to grow steadily, this issue has become even more alarming
• Potential Threats to Water Supplies in Ottawa The purpose of the research is to identify the distribution of threats to drinking water in the city and determine who might benefit and who might be harmed in the process.
• Water Quality in Savannah, Georgia The City of Savannah Water Supply and Treatment Department conducts numerous annual tests to ensure that drinking water in the region is safe for human consumption.
• Water Pollution Index of Batujai Reservoir, Central Lombok Regency-Indonesia Despite having 6% of the world’s water resources, Indonesia’s environmental policies have not only been raising concerns but also pushed the country to the brink of water crisis.
• Dream Water Company’s Product Marketing The core product is the main benefit that the product brings to the consumer. For Dream Water, the core product is the medication against insomnia.
• Water Management in the “Flow” Documentary The documentary “Flow” discusses and describes two significant things that are preventing people from having access to freshwater.
• Water Sanitation Program in Saudi Arabia In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as the demand for water continues to increase without an equivalent increase in the supply, the level of hygiene may soon become a problem.
• Virtual Water Content and Global Water Savings The Virtual Water Content concept was the byproduct of discussions regarding the need to provide food in countries suffering from drought or plagued with perpetual water scarcity.
• Active Remediation Algorithm for Water Service in Flint The Active Remediation algorithm aims to inspect the water service in Flint, Michigan, and identify those lead pipes that need to be replaced by copper pipes.
• Water Savings and Virtual Trade in Agriculture Water trade in agriculture is not a practice that is unique to the modern generation. The practice was common long before the emergence of the Egyptian Empire.
• Virtual Water Trade and Savings in Agriculture This essay discusses the savings associated with virtual water trade in agriculture and touches on the effects of a shift to local agricultural production on global water savings.
• Virtual Water Trade of Agricultural Products Virtual water trade is a concept associated with globalization and the global economy. Its rise was motivated by growing water scarcity in arid areas around the world.
• Environmental Legislation: Clean Water Act Clean Water Act determines water quality standards, serves as a basis for the enactment of pollution control programs, and regulates the presence of contaminants in surface water.
• Third-Party Logistics, Water Transportation, Pipelines Transportation plays a crucial role in today’s business world. This work shows the benefits and limitations of third-party logistics providers, water transportation, and pipelines.
• Water Quality and Contamination In this paper, carries out detailed experiments on the bottled and tap water available to consumers to establish whether it is worthwhile to purchase bottled water.
• Oil, Water and Corruption in Central Asian States The region of Central Asia has been a focus of the world’s political and economic attention due to its rich oil and gas resources. Corruption is the main curse of Central Asian states.
• Environmental Studies: Water Recycling Different countries face varying challenges in as far as the provision of clean water to its population is concerned depending on its economic development level and geographic location.
• Environmental Pollution (Fresh Water) In terms of the water Pollution, conditioning it would be analyzed whether it has declined or improved over the past few years and if so the degree would be determined.
• How Does Water Pollution Affect Human Health?
• Are Sports Drinks Better for Athletes Than Water?
• What Happens if You Don’t Filter Your Water?
• Can Game Theory Help to Mitigate Water Conflicts in the Syrdarya Basin?
• How Can We Reduce Water Scarcity?
• Are Water Filters Really That Important?
• How Much Water Do We Need to Feed the World?
• Why Is Water Important for Food Production?
• Can Markets Improve Water Allocation in Rural America?
• How Can We Reduce Water Consumption in Food Industry?
• Can Public Sector Reforms Improve the Efficiency of Public Water Utilities?
• What Are the Modern Technologies Used to Treat Water?
• How Does Water Pollution Affect Global Warming?
• Can Sea Water Generate Usable Energy?
• What Are the Steps Taken by the Government to Reduce Water Pollution?
• Can Sugar Help Lower the Freezing Point of Water?
• Do We Need More Laws to Control Water Pollution?
• Can the Global Community Successfully Confront the Global Water Shortage?
• What Is the Government Doing to Save Water?
• Can Virtual Water ‘Trade’ Reduce Water Scarcity in Semi-arid Countries?
• Does Urbanization Improve Industrial Water Consumption Efficiency?
• How Has Technology Helped Us Save Water?
• Does Piped Water Improve Household Welfare?
• Can Water Pollution Policy Be Efficient?
• How Does Green Infrastructure Improve Water Quality?

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These essay examples and topics on Water were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 9, 2024 .

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• Published: 19 January 2023

A journal for all water-related research

Nature Water volume  1 ,  page 1 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Nature Water aims to be a venue for all research on the evolving relationship between water resources and society.

In the series of notes now commonly known as the Codex Leicester, Leonardo da Vinci described water as ‘vetturale della natura’, the driving force of all nature. Da Vinci was fascinated by water and by its motion. His studies focussed specifically on the way water flows, especially in rivers, the way it goes around obstacles, the way it erodes rocks, and more broadly on how everything in nature progresses through the motion of water.

Although Da Vinci was mostly referring to the physical properties of water, it would be fair to extend his words to take into consideration that water resources are also the engine of human society. Since the origin of civilization, people have settled around rivers, lakes and along coastal areas. Water was essential for drinking of course, but also for sanitation, transportation and for agriculture. Throughout history, the relationship between water and society has evolved primarily thanks to scientific and technological progress. Aqueducts, sewages, irrigation and transportation canals and eventually water and wastewater treatment systems have improved how water is distributed, and helped prevent damage to the environment and the spreading of pathogens and pollutants.

All the scientific and technological progress of the past has however not been enough to prevent the water-related challenges of modern society. According to the United Nations (UN), as of 2020, 26% of the world population still lacked access to safely managed drinking water and 46% did not have safely managed sanitation. Water and sanitation are in fact the focus of the 6 th Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of the UN, which aims at ensuring access to clean water and sanitation for all by 2030. Furthermore, water is central to the achievements of most of the other SDGs, including zero hunger, sustainable cities, gender equality, climate action and responsible consumption.

Although the most significant problems with water and sanitation are in the poorest countries, the richer countries also suffer from water inequalities and water injustice. At a global level, rising temperatures and extreme weather events like floods and droughts drastically reduce water quantity and quality. Furthermore, increasing population and technological progress generate higher demands for clean water on the one hand, and severe water contamination on the other.

Facing the challenges related to water requires changes in the current technological and social infrastructure, in order to achieve environmentally sustainable use of water resources and a more equal and just water access. This will be possible through the combination of concurrent and diverse actions, including improvements in technological infrastructure, behaviour, governance, laws and regulations.

The launch of Nature Water originates from the desire to create a venue where all researchers working towards a more equitable and sustainable relationship between water and society can find the most significant contributions from natural sciences, social sciences and engineering. Our aim to report significant contributions from all water-related research is clearly expressed in the Viewpoint published in this first issue, which showcases the contribution of nine experts covering some of the challenges and prospects in a range of areas of water research.

The rest of the content also covers a variety of topics. The Review by Rodell and Reager and the Article by Schilling et al. focus on hydrology; the Analysis by Zeng et al. is about the water–energy nexus; the Perspective by Schipanski is about governance of groundwater resources; the Article by Mueller and Gasteyer and the Article by Rachunok and Fletcher analyse water-related economic inequalities in different communities; finally the Perspective by Elimelech and co-authors, the Article by Xie and co-authors and the Article by Liu and co-authors, focus on water and wastewater treatment.

As a journal covering a thematic research area, there are two essential aspects that Nature Water will endorse from the outset. The first one, which is beautifully illustrated by Julia Martin-Ortega in her World View , is that when looking at the interaction between people and water, social sciences must be an integral part of research, on par with natural sciences and engineering. Improving our understanding of natural resources or developing new and efficient technologies will not be enough if we do not take into account how behaviours, perceptions, laws and regulations can lead to a more just, less expensive and more environmentally sustainable access and use of water resources.

The second is that the results of water research should be open to all. Nature Water is a transformative journal, which means that authors of primary research have the option of open-access publication. We are also fully committed to open and FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reproducible) data, as well as the sharing of code. The Comment by Emma Schymanski and Stanislaus Schymanski, and the Comment by Rhea Verbeke illustrate the importance of open science as well as the obstacles that seem to limit the data and code sharing at this stage. At Nature Water , we explicitly encourage our authors to deposit their data and codes in public repositories, and we shall work with the research community to ensure that open science becomes common practice for all areas of water-related research.

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469 Water Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Looking for interesting topics related to water? This study field is broad, exciting, and definitely worth exploring!

🏆 Best Water Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

👍 top water essay examples, 📌 easy topics related to water, 💡 water essay topics, ✍ water topics for research papers, 🥇 interesting water topics to write about, ❓ essay questions about water.

In your essay about water, you might want to focus on water as one of the most valuable natural resources. Consider exploring the issues of water pollution, purification, conservation, or management. Whether you need to prepare an essay, a research paper, or a presentation, our article will be helpful. Here we’ve collected water essay topics and titles. Water essay examples are added to inspire you even more!

• Should Bottled Water Be Banned? Plastics is one of the products that are leading in polluting the environment. Plastics are detrimental to the environment; they affect the soil, water, air and eventually lead to climate change and global warming.
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions This is why clean water is required in all the places to make sure the people and all the living creatures in the planet live a good and healthy life.
• Air and Water Pollution in the Modern World The high number of vehicles in the city has greatly promoted air pollution in the area. Poor sewerage system, high pollution from industries and automobiles are among the major causes of air and water pollutions […]
• Water Scarcity as a Global Issue: Causes and Solutions Common causes of water scarcity include overpopulation e in regions that have limited water resources, global warming, destruction of water catchment areas by human activities, and pollution of water sources.
• Water Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Prevention Farmers should be encouraged to embrace this kind of farming which ensures that the manure used is biodegradable and do not end up accumulating in the water bodies once they are washed off by floods.
• Water Recycling Recycled water is obtained from waste water and contaminated water that has been subjected to thorough treatment to ensure that it is proper for use for different purposes.
• Fire and Water Symbols in “Sula” by Toni Morrison Water and fire are used by the author as symbols of destruction and purification respectively, which allows the readers to better understand the main characters in the context of the communist oppression.
• The Process of the Water Cycle It is the primary process that drives the movement of water from water bodies into the atmosphere in form of water vapor.
• Water Advertisement The waterfall in the background reinforces the psychological need for water and adds to the freshness of the advertisement and water itself.
• Evian Water Company’s Analysis Due to the popularity of its water, the company managed to expand, and in 1978, it made its way to the market of the United States of America.
• The Thematic Concept in Water Names Like the narrator, a reader may think that the story presents a happy ending, as the young woman “went to join the kingdom of her beloved”. The woman wants the girls to find the answer […]
• Water Purification Process Since the process is aimed at eliminating all the impurities present in the water, it is necessary to apply chemical and physical methods of separation in an orderly manner.
• Water Cycle: Lesson Plan for 5th Graders The purpose of the program is to introduce students to the water cycle systems, stages, and importance. The student should be able to define and explain the water cycle stages.
• Accessibility to Safe Drinking Water The first is to dig wells in the rural and arid areas to aid the people to have access to water. The other alternative is to treat water and use it in the home.
• The Effect of Plastic Water Bottles on the Environment In addition, the proponents of plastic use have argued that recycling is an effective method of mitigating the effects of plastic to the environment.
• How Does Water Hyacinth Harm the Local Ecosystem? Water hyacinth Flowers Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystem and affects aquatic life and water quality. The life of other plants and animals is jeopardized by the rapid growth of water hyacinth.
• Water Shortage’ Major Causes and Implication Summary of the article This article is a discussion regarding one major problem that is an issue of concern in the 21st century which according to the author, the world is currently facing a major […]
• Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area In this brief economic analysis of water pollution in Metro Manila, it is proposed to look at the industrial use of waters and the household use to understand the impact that the population growth and […]
• Water Cycle Process On the reaching the atmosphere water molecules bond together again and come back to the earth surface through the process of precipitation.
• Saving Water and Methods of Its Protection That is, the plan will effectively manage the water usage at the current state of the company as well as in the future. If protection and conservation of water is not done, there will be […]
• Masafi Water Company and Al Ain Water Company Manufacturing of Masafi and Al Ain Water: The resource of Masafi water is the mountain and this is why the water is rich in minerals.
• Determination of Quinine in Tonic Water with Fluorescence Spectroscopy In general, luminescence is understood as the glow of substances not accompanied by heat production but initiated by the absorption of photons.
• Fiji Water Report The aim of this report is to analyze the future options of Fiji waters company growing up as a company that will be conscious to the environment and ensure its’ sustainability.
• Coca-Cola India and Water Pollution Issues The first difficulty that the representatives of the Coca-Cola Company happened to face due to their campaign in the territory of India was caused by the concerns of the local government.
• Water Transport Systems in the World The development of the three and four Masted ships in the 16th century was a major event in the history of the water transportation system.
• Fiji Water: A Comprehensive Analysis The paper is analytical in nature and it displays some of the aspects that make the product unique and relevant in the market, some of the challenges that the product’s company encounters, how the company […]
• Muslim Civilisation: The Mechanical Water Clock of Ibn Al-Haytham This forth stage is the one that determines the survival of the state, as the society is already discontented with the rule, hence disintegration of the state.
• Roman Aqueducts “The Relevance of Water to the Social Political Climate of the Roman” The main question in this paper is: what were the names and functions of the aqueducts in ancient Rome? The need to build aqueducts in Rome was prompted by the need for mass supply of […]
• The Effect of pH on Water Holding Capacity of Chicken In the present laboratory work, the main issue is to investigate the potential relationship between WHC as a measure of moisture content and chicken pH; specifically, the question is to identify the effect of meat […]
• Bottled Water Industry and Aquafina Another reason of the boom in the consumption of bottled water is its taste because a large number of people prefer its taste to that of tap water.
• Fiji Water Strategic Analysis The second alternative could involve the idea of putting underground and sea bed pipes to facilitate the transportation of the water commodity from Fiji to the lucrative international markets, such as the US.
• Las Vegas Water Shortage The lake happens to be the primary source of water for Las Vegas and this is an alarming development for the urban area which has a rapid population growth and is projected to be about […]
• Water Resource Management: How to Save Water Resources We need to address the difficult problems of evaluating and protecting the global commons, which are complicated and interrelated while maintaining the free trade systems of the world.
• Key Factors of Competitive Success in the Water Bottling Industry The introduction of enhanced or functional water products, by a number of major bottling firms such as Coca-Cola and PepsiCo, has provided further competition, threatening to squeeze profitability for them.
• Environmental Impact of Bottled Water The process of manufacturing the water bottles, such as the dependence on fossil fuels, is causing a lot of direct as well indirect destructing to the environment.
• Tipperary Mineral Water Company In addition, consumers’ desire to lead a healthy lifestyle has greatly increased the market growth and demand for mineral water by a rate of 8. The main consumers of mineral water in this market are […]
• Analysis of Lab: Heat of Fusion of Water In this experiment, information was collected regarding the mass of the calorimeter and bowl, the mass of the empty calorimeter, the water, and the contents: all raw data are shown in Table 1.
• Water Transportation Industry’s Impact on Wildlife It is possible to note that emissions and the use of ballast water can be seen as serious issues that pose hazards to maritime animals.
• Anomalous Expansion of Water: A Home Experiment This investigation proves the hypothesis that water expands anomalously when cooled and increases in volume as it nears its freezing point of zero degree Celsius.
• Best Water Management Practices The use of spray irrigations to water gardens contributes to the loss of water. The government has invested in the creation of public awareness of the various water conservation strategies.
• Sustainability: Domestic Water Usage Much of the hot water is used when cleaning and washing, with the shower making up to 43% of the 41 gallons and washing clothes making up to 29%.
• Water Conservation and Drought Issues in Resorts The idea of the conservation of natural resources and water, in particular, became popular in the previous century. The understanding of the need for nature protection commenced in the 1960s.
• The Water System: Rivers, Streams and Lakes The techniques used to compare rivers in the world involve an analysis of the size of the drainage area, the length of the main stem and the mean discharge.
• The Issue of Bottled Water Consumption The steady rise in the demand for bottled water is causing hips of unnecessary garbage and resulting in the consumption of vast quantities of energy according to the report by Earth Policy Institute.
• Third World War Will Be Over Water The severity of the case of water scarcity can be best explained by the inclusion of the problem of water as one of the main goals of one of the greatest development frameworks in the […]
• Synopsis of “Water” Short Story by Lee Hoffman From the story it is clearly indicated that, Evan was very disappointed with what Redmor treated the people of this area; and decided to take a ravage especially because his friend Hank was shot.
• Sustainable Strategies in Water Quality Control With regards to the first strategy, it is important to touch the hearts and minds of the next generation’s leaders and policy makers. They have to see and experience the benefits of their actions.
• Water Properties as a Solvent: An Experiment Lab In the second part of the work, a mixture of 10 g of solid calcium hydroxide and 50 mL of drinking water in a beaker was initially created.
• The Water Cube Project and Design-Build Approaches Despite the variety of designs that the engineers could use in the construction, the choice of a Water Cube helped to embolden the Chinese culture in the building.
• Dehydration and Importance of Water There are plenty of fluids in the body that mainly consist of water; one of these is saliva. Water also transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body that are in need […]
• Water and Its Role in Biochemical Processes The goal of this paper is to discuss the chemical properties of water that are most important for life on Earth.
• Integrated Sustainable Water Management in the UAE The UAE Water Security Strategy 2036 was unveiled by the Ministry of Energy in 2017 to ensure that access to water during an emergency and normal conditions are sustainable within the internal standards, local regulations, […]
• Motivations to Choose Bottled Water The growth of the bottled water industry is attracting a lot of global attention because more companies are jostling to have a significant share of the market.
• Water and Environment Engineering The village is situated in the Northwestern part of the state, near the seacoast. However, one of the village residents made an offer to the turtle and the latter allowed humans to use water from […]
• Cashion Water Quality: Spatial Distribution of Water Pollution Incidents This essay discusses the quality of water as per the report of 2021 obtained from the municipality, the quality issue and the source of pollution, and how the pollution impacts human health and the environment […]
• Case Study: Human Body Water Balance Sodium is reabsorbed in the thick climbing appendage of the loop of Henle. The rest of the Na+ retention happens in the distal nephron.
• Seawater vs. Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis The concentrations of seawater and brackish water differ considerably; hence, there is a distinction involving the concentrate acquired from seawater desalination plants and brackish water desalination plants.
• Water Consumption by Individuals and Households Water demand rate for a household differs from that by industry within the same day and as well differs from the entire per-capital demand of a community.
• Bling H2O: Brand of Mineral Water Besides, it has a median age of 35 and is the economic hub of Australia, for example, out of the 54 banks operating in the continent, 44 have their headquarters in Sydney.
• Water-Saving Technologies in the Middle East Our planet is made of 70% water and yet most areas of the world are without water. However, to conserve the cost of this important resource, certain steps are being taken by the respective governments […]
• Water Pollution: OIL Spills Aspects The effects of the oil spill on a species of ducks called the Harlequin ducks were formulated and the author attempted to trace out the immediate and residual effects of the oil on the birds.
• Water: Nature’s Gift to Humanity However, the role of this element is not only in the formation of life but also its maintenance since this seemingly ordinary liquid plays an enormously essential role in the existence of the human and […]
• Demo Park Water Administration Project Management In this assignment, the main areas for group work were the creation of a project plan and the identification, as well as the demonstration of its importance.
• Project Management: Sydney Water Company Besides, from the start of the project, there were unclear procedures on how the project was to be reported to the board of directors.
• Ethics of Bottled Water The manufacture of bottled water began in Europe in the 1970s. The availability of bottled water allows consumers to buy water when they need it.
• Fiji Water Company Analysis The differences in the kind of approach a company adopts in the handling of its CSR communication is due to an apparent sensitivity of the CSR topic, as well as company ambiguity and inadequate knowledge […]
• Behavior Change: More Water, No Coffee By the way, this was the first day when I did not feel any lack of energy due to the lack of coffee.
• Understanding the Water Regulations in Kenya The Constitution, therefore, mandates the national government the role of ensuring that all the water resources, including the international waters, are well managed and utilized to better the lives of the citizens in the nation.
• The Flint Water Crisis From Marxist Perspective To understand the causes of the crisis and ways to prevent such problems in the future, it is possible to employ the Marxist approach.
• Importance of Mercury Water Pollution Problem Solutions The severity of the mercury contamination consequences depends on the age of the person exposed to the contamination, the way of contamination, the health condition, and many other factors.
• Water Cycle and Environmental Factors The phrase “water cycle” refers to the continuous movement of water from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere, and then back to the surface of the Earth.
• Irrigation and Sustainable Water Use for Improved Crop Yield Irrigation refers to the artificial use of water to assist in agriculture and is important in the suppression of weeds especially in grain fields and in the deterrence of soil hardening.
• Kantian Perspective on Water Privatisation According to the extant literature, this is a response to the experience of the global water crisis. In this case, there is the tendency to exploit in the selling of water, and the positions are […]
• Como Agua Para Chocolate: Like Water for Chocolate At the end of the film, they finally find a way to be together, but after marriage Pedro dies and Tita kills herself.
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority’s Employees The paper will seek to determine the primary reason for the symptoms indicated by DEWA’s HR staff and to provide recommendations for action to improve the current situation.
• Drinking Water Availability and Quality in the USA To understand the importance of the issues of drinking water quality and availability in the Southwestern United States, factors such as local climate, population changes, consumption of local and imported water, wastewater treatment, and recycling […]
• Environmental Science: Smart Water Management Among the essential elements in human life is water, which is required for maintaining the water balance in the body and for cleanliness, as well as for many economic sectors, from agriculture to metallurgy.
• Systemic Effects (Risks) of Water Fluoridation: Fluoridation Assignment Fluoride contributes to teeth development depending on the site where it is applied and the mode of entry into the system. Thus, proponents argue it is one of the safest and most effective solutions to […]
• Ineffective Water Resource Management in the Hotel Industry In the context of the problem of water overuse for service production and revenue generation, the most appropriate type of assessment is a water audit.
• Innovations on Energy and Water Co-Benefits In addition, the number of harmful emissions that are harmful to both people and the planet will be significantly reduced. The introduction of social innovations is to develop strategies that will solve social problems.
• The Himalayan Melting Glacier Contribution to Water Scarcity in Mount Everest Planetary phenomena such as the tilt of the Earth, its distance from the Sun, temperature, and atmospheric cycles belong to the first category.
• Food and Water Shortage: The Negative Effects As a result, one of the biggest challenges in the 21st century is the food and water shortage, which might lead to violence and the death of many people.
• Sustaining Our Water Resources: Pharmaceuticals in Water Supply The presence of pharmaceuticals in the water supply is primarily harmful to fish and aquatic wildlife as they may impact the hormone system of living creatures, causing reproductive failure.
• The Article “Where the Water Goes” by David Owen This paper highlights misconceptions about the drying of lake Mead, the importance of the Colorado River, and the causes of its scarcity in Las Vegas.
• Plan Elements for Sustainable Management of Water Resources It was taken into account because it provides greater imperiousness, where the rising development of Arzaville community structures and roadways disrupts the local water cycle and floods bays and guts with significant amounts of stormwater […]
• Clouds: The Water Cycle and Social Sciences As a result, when the weight increases and the droplets grow, they are released in the form of precipitations. Moreover, the movement of the water can be applied to a sociological element.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• Water’s Role in Society and Its Applications The water table is forced higher by a dam to intensify the force of the water’s descent. In the future, water should be modified to act as a source of fuel for different machinery to […]
• Water Contamination Issue in Medical Anthropology The role of water is so important that any economic or political disturbance can result in the worsening health problems of the population. The most recent and evident example of the failure in disease management […]
• Water Consumption and Sleep Hygiene Practices First, I will discuss that safe and sufficient water facilitates the practice of hygiene and well-being and is a critical determining factor for health.
• India’s Water Supply Improvement Plan In India, the concept of a “water crisis” is firmly established, and the future of the country largely depends on how it will be possible to dispose of the available sources of fresh water.
• Water and Energy Problems in Mining Industry The goal is to find and recommend solutions for mining companies to easily access quality ore deposits in inaccessible areas. According to the second interviewee, accessibility to water and electricity are among the major challenges […]
• The Water Treatment System Project The purpose of this project was to create a water treatment system that will allow for establishing and maintaining the provision of high-quality drinking water. In turn, the second part of the project includes information […]
• Sustainable Development and Water-Food-Energy Nexus in Sweden The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations states that the securities of food, energy, and water are interconnected and depend on each other.
• Water Quality Issues: Case Study Analysis The quality of water is an essential part of the infrastructure of a city or state, which affects the health of the population and the level of well-being.
• America’s Growing Clean Water Crisis and the Resulting Diseases The current water crisis in Flint, Michigan, has focused a lot of attention on the state of water infrastructure. Lastly, there will be a not adequate amount of water to help in dissolving the nutrients […]
• The Sea Water Impact on the Human Cell Hence, consuming it causes a high amount of salt without the human cell, which leads to a steep concentration gradient within the cell, thereby causing water to be drawn out, which is detrimental to the […]
• Factors of the Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan The factors that caused the water crisis in this city can be considered negligence of the authorities, ambiguous and contradictory instructions of environmental protection agencies, and corruption.
• Increasing Global Access to Clean Water and Sanitation As noticed by researchers, innovative solutions to achieve global clean water and sanitation are needed, and the positive partnership of various organizations and groups from different spheres and levels may help with this task.
• Environmental Racism: The Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan The situation is a manifestation of environmental racism and classism since most of the city’s population is people of color and poor. Thus, the water crisis in Flint, Michigan, is a manifestation of environmental racism […]
• Flint Water Crisis: Municipal Water Supply System The city of Flint was a thriving industrial center in the third quarter of the last century; however, it had economic difficulties due to the closure of several General Motors factories in the 1980s and […]
• Water Quality Report: Overview Water quality reports provide information in regards to the quality of the drinking water, possible contaminants, and ways to reduce risks.
• The Flint Water Crisis and Its Impact The contaminated water has lead to a number of diseases and disabilities, which, in turn, has left the city’s population with a large number of healthcare bills. In conclusion, the Flint Water Crisis is an […]
• Overcoming Shortage of Drinking Water It is also possible to process saltwater into freshwater, which is the most promising way to solve the problem of water scarcity.
• Financial Attractiveness of Domestic Solar Hot Water Systems: Article Review The peculiarity of the article is that the study of the authors aims to resolve urgent needs by increasing the demand for goods.
• Singapore International Water Week A good example of these conferences is the Singapore International Water Week and it forms the basis for this detailed report The SIWW 2022 brings together professionals, technocrats, and government leaders to share their experiences […]
• The Safe Drinking Water Act 1974: The Main Concept The act also directs EPA to report on the eminence of drinking water in the U. The SDWA calls for the EPA to publish an annual report on the drinking water in the US.
• The Safe Drinking Water Act 1974: Overview The main provisions in this law were to ensure that water supplied from the source to the faucets was free from natural and artificial contaminants through water treatment and consistent supply to the public.
• Is Tap Water Better and Safer for People and the Environment Than Bottled Water? In this study, I have decided to explore if tap water is better and safer for people and the environment than bottled one. Further, I will look at the impact of bottled water on people […]
• The Influence of Water Quality on the Population of Salmonid Fish It is expected that populations of wild salmonid fish may decline rapidly due to water pollution instead of farmed species because the effects of water pollution are deleterious.
• Rainwater Harvesting to Replenish Underground Water in India Due to the increased rates of deforestation in Rajasthan monsoon, rains started to wash down the surface levels of the soil, making the ground less fertile and eroded.
• Typical Reasonably Homogeneous Equilibrium in Water It is important that the diffusion coefficient used to link the iodine concentrations in one phase to that in another account for the existence of iodide and polyiodide salts.
• Creative and Critical Thinking in Case of Lack of Water In order to identify the significance of creative and critical thinking in the situation presented, it is necessary to dwell on the definition of the process of creative thinking.
• Water Scarcity in Africa and Mental Disorders Partially, the reason for the lack of meaningful changes in the policies preventing the causes lies in the social stigma towards patients with mental problems.
• Concept of Water Companies Furthermore, in this market formation, it is assumed that the prices do not control the market, which is contrary to the search for a life partner.
• The Safe Drinking Water Act: The Discussion Post The discussion post acknowledges that the Safe Drinking Water Act has remained a powerful guideline that must be followed by different stakeholders to ensure quality and clean drinking water is available to the greatest number […]
• Dehydration and Water in People’s Life It is of utmost importance since it cannot be stored in the body and replenishing of the water must occur constantly.
• Energy and Air Emission Effects of Water Supply Contemporary systems meant to heat water/air explore both the heat pumps and the solar plates that are combined to form a unit with the aim of optimizing on the energy efficiency as well as solar […]
• Adjustable Speed Drives Improving Circulating Water System This was concluded to be because of the many vortices that were generated as a result of the hindrance in the flow of water due to the shape defect.
• Effect of Sea Water and Corrosion on Concrete On the other hand, substantial tautness, for instance due to meandering will shatter the tiny firm pattern, ending up in fracturing and disjointing of the concrete.
• Oil and Water Flow in a Petroleum Reservoir While the physical model is to the scale of the original reservoir’s dimensions, a mathematical model is different. The mathematical model allows one to learn the fluid flow equation without having to develop a laboratory […]
• Efficient Solar Refrigeration: A Technology Platform for Clean Energy and Water Refrigeration cycle capable to be driven by low grade energy, substituting gas-phase ejector used in conventional mechanical compressor.
• Salt and Drinking Water Shortage Therefore, humanity could reveal that given that the salt would not be willing to negotiate, it is possible to extort the water from the Martians as the resources of Earth are not as essential.
• Flint Water Crisis: Environmental Racism and Racial Capitalism The Flint crisis is a result of the neoliberal approach of the local state as opposed to the typical factors of environmental injustice; a polluter or a reckless emitter cutting costs. The two main factors […]
• Oil-Water Separation Techniques in Qatar’s Desalination Plants In many areas of the Middle East, the proper functioning of the vital social mechanism depends on the stable supply of fresh water.
• Annotated Bibliography on Water Management The importance of water management and its application in the oil industry is the primary focus of Adham et al.in this article.
• Recycled Water – Is It Safe for Drinking? There are a number of barriers that always work against the desire to obtain safe drinking water from recycling plants.
• Remote Sensing Monitoring the Ground Water Quality The overall view of the water quality index of the present study area revealed that most of the study area with > 50 standard rating of water quality index exhibited poor, very poor and unfit […]
• A Means of Water Conservation: Irrigation System Strategy An irrigation system strategy is a cost effective strategy that achieves water efficiency that crops get sufficient water whilst minimizing negative effects of irrigation.
• The Consequences of Using Tap and Bottled Water Using the word ‘walking’, the professor means searching for the required information, while ‘talking’ is a dialogue with the authors of the sources.’Cooking’ is implementing the information in the paper to achieve new conclusions, and […]
• Thirstier Mineral Water: Australian Market Analysis Due to the demand of the pure water, a group of students carried out research to come up with a natural drinking mineral water to meet Australian population demands.
• The Health Condition of Water Filtration for the Prevention of Gastroenteritis The medical care authorities prescribe that to lessen the danger of burning-through dirtied or defiled water is satisfactorily sifting water prior to drinking. The properties of the water channel should be checked to ensure that […]
• Marketing of the Bottled Water Industry in the US The growth of the industry can then be attributed to the level of comfort that people have become accustomed to. The bottled water industry is a feasible option for investors who would like to concentrate […]
• Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority The subject of the contract is the performance of construction works by Contractor for ADWEA. The term of the contract includes the time needed to execute and complete all works.
• Proper Water Flow Requirements In order to ascertain the proper flow of water, standard typical sprinkler testing should be carried out on all the established water systems.
• Water Scarcity Problem in Sub-Saharan Africa Since the world has water in abundance, it is necessary that more be done to address the shortage of clean water.
• Water Quality Importance In a lot of areas, the water available to the public is contaminated; that is it has substances that can be of great harm to public health.
• Anglo American PLC: Water Usage Sustainability Anglo American PLC, which is a well-known mining company operating as the second-largest mining company in the industry, intends to embellish the rate of sustainability to retain its global position in the critical competitive mining […]
• Newark Water Crisis: Water Pollution Problem The main problem was rooted in the fact that lead levels in the drinking water were highly elevated, which is dangerous and detrimental to the population’s health.
• Water Quality and the Water Board Scenario As a member of this water board one first needs to find out the level of quality of water and its source before the eruption of the drought, the clear cause of water shortage, impacts […]
• Water Fluoridation Plant Analysis On the other hand, the flow meter provides the rates of water flow to the dosing facility, which interprets the amount of fluoride needed in the water.
• Determination of M2+ Ions in Mineral Water Titrometry is one of the techniques that chemical analysts use to determine the concentration of metal ions in mineral water. A buffer is necessary to provide suitable pH for the complexing of EDTA with metal.
• House Energy Audit: Water and Energy Consumption Review for the House 265 kWh/kL water supply The actual daily consumption in a period of 8 days of the above-mentioned utilities are calculated and recorded in the following table 2.
• Pre-Construction Design Specifications: Water Piping Sub-System The criteria of complexity and implementation are related to the flexible PDS criteria of the system being powering set-up, repeatability of measurement, reduced temperature setup time, and progressive heating/cooling supply temperature.
• Woburn’s Municipal Water Supply System During the subsequent 20years, “problems with the taste, odor, and supply of water from the city wells continued to arise”. To remove the fine particles, chemicals such as polymers, salts and aluminum are included in […]
• Toxicology: Is Water a Toxic Substance? It is well known that the solubility of ethanol in water is unlimited. Toxicity could be a characteristic of the formation of the reactive oxygen species which can also be present in water.
• The Effects of a High Consumption of Water The null hypothesis would be that increasing the daily intake of water to eight glasses a day has a positive effect on the body, especially on the skin.
• FIJI Water: The Leading Producer of Bottled Water At the same time, the overall corporate culture and the company’s contribution to the development of the community are rather effective.
• The Physical and Chemical Properties of Water Considering the structure in the figure above, it is evident that a molecule of water has a line of symmetry that can be traced through the water molecule, acting as a bisector of the angle […]
• Biorefinery Processes and Products (Microalgae and Water Hyacinth) The biomass pulp is directed to the second biorefinery process where grains and enzymes are fed into the tank. The fermentation and bio-reactions lead to the formation of bio-products which are fed into the fourth […]
• Water-Absorbing Polymers: Review Thus, to improve wetting properties of the sandy soils, prevent leaching of nutrients, and improve the yields of onions, the use of water-absorbing polymers is essential.
• How a Desalination Plant Removes Salts, Minerals From Water The main objective of such processes is to convert salty water into one that is suitable for human use or in some cases for irrigation purposes.
• Water for Environmental Health and Promotion The recognition of the effect of the epidemiological triangle is quite crucial, as people ought to realize the interrelationship of the host, environment and agent in the process of spreading diseases and the effect that […]
• Conventional Water Treatment It is essential to note the contrast between the quality of source water and the quality of the desired treated water for better selection of the treatment process.
• Water Supply and Sanitation Systems Devikilum Village The rate of pumping will depend on the rate of water recovery from the sources, and hence prior arrangement of pumping rate must be considered when installing the pump. Due to its availability and low […]
• Reduced Flow of Stream Water The algae will flourish almost to the surface of the stream and this may appear like scum that is easy to notice.
• “Nutrient Water” Type Drinks and Whole Milk: Evidence-Based Claims The report then goes on to conclude as to the findings of the various journals on which of the two is the better option and finally a recommendation as to the circumstances when their use […]
• Women Groups in Ikombe County: Water Tanks Delivery Funding Phase one which will be implemented in the first year will target to provide four women groups with water tanks. The last phase will be accomplished in the fifth year and will provide tanks to […]
• Diet and Water as an Overlooked Essential Nutrient Water is a very important nutrient in the body because it maintains homeostasis, and enhances the transport of other nutrients and minerals from their point of absorption to other parts of the body.
• Parent Purchase Bottled Water With all the sweat and tears, I can feel that you must be really tired with all the work that you do. This total number of bottled water consumed excludes the water that you take […]
• Designing a Controlled Water Cooling System
• Warm Water and the Characteristics of Plaster
• Aquadaf Technology – High Rate Water Clarification
• Fluoride in Drinking Water, Its Costs and Benefits to Oral Health
• Water Desalination in Saudi Arabia
• Irrigation Water and Carbon Footprint
• Domestic Water Usage Monitoring System
• Nutrition: The Importance of Water for Daily Life
• Water Policy Design in Toronto
• People Affected by Fires and Natural Disasters Need Help With Food, Water, Shelter
• Landscaping Membranes for Oil-Water Separation
• Water Treatment System for Saline Bores in Cape York
• Testing the Safety of Water in Canada
• The Mega Corporation: Clean Water
• Clean Water Change the Lives of People in Developing Countries
• Privatization of Water in St. Louis
• Finance for Drinking Water Infrastructure
• BP: Water Use in Oil and Gas Industry
• Visiting Black Rock Water Reclamation Plan
• Water Scarcity: Industrial Projects of Countries That Affect the External Environment
• Mapping Environmental Justice: Water and Waste Management
• Virtual Water and Water-Energy-Food Nexus
• California and Water Shortage
• Water Policy: The Impacts of Water Trading
• Water Services and Fire Fighting in Maryland
• Water Service in the UK: History and Sources
• Water Distribution in California
• Monet’s Water Lilies: What Would Clive Bell Say?
• Western Region Water Corporation’s Analysis
• Water: The Element of Life
• Evaluation of the Popularity of Bottled Water Over the Tap Water
• Water and Energy Requirements of Curcubita Maxima
• Modern Water Purification Methods for the Middle East
• Water Purification in Saudi Arabia
• 321 Water as a Bottle With a Built-in Filter
• Energy, Water and Capital as Factors Influencing Business
• Water Purification: Process and Other Nuances
• Thomas Cole’s Revelations Through Landscape and Water
• Thames Water Company’s Pollution Issue and Ecocentrism
• Restoration of the Natural Water Flow in the Everglades
• Fresh Water System for El Salvador
• Las Vegas Water Policy
• Water Pollution in a Community: Mitigation Plan
• Mediterranean Deep Water & Levantine Intermediate Water
• North California Water Problem and Solution to It
• Modern Global Issues: Drinking Water Shortage
• Sharjah Electricity & Water Authority’s Creative Improvement Strategies
• Domestic Water Consumption : Effect, Outcome, Feedback
• Liquid Waste Disposal and Ground Water Contamination
• Polluted Water and Human Diseases
• Water Resource Exploitation in the Arid Lands as an Global Political Problem
• Water-Based Recreational Opportunities
• Market Analysis of Bottled Water
• Water Efficiency in Food Production: Food Security, and Quality of Life
• Food Distribution and Water Pollution
• Water, Energy and Food Sustainability in Middle East
• Domestication of Water: History of Swimming Pools
• Analysis of Water in Wetlands for Phosphate, Nitrite, and Bacteria
• Food and Water Access. Human Security Perspective
• Flow: For Love of Water
• Environmental Policy: Water Sanitation
• Masafi Alkalife pH9 Water Advertisement
• The Ongoing Problem of Lead in Drinking Water in Newark, New Jersey
• Jordan’s Water Crisis and Response
• Baja California Water Crisis and Its Impact
• Columbia Roxx Water Company: Operations and Management Plan
• The Documentary Film “Flow: For Love of Water”
• Natural Sciences: Water Expansion During Freezing
• Water Treatment Impact on Wheat Plant Growth
• Insects and Walking on Water
• Water Shortage in Somalia: Reasons and Solutions
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority’s Internship
• Fiji Water’ Environmental Effects
• Bolivian Water Price Determination
• Energy and Water Projects in the Middle East and North Africa
• Irrigation Water Reduction Using Water-Absorbing Polymers
• Public Water Supply System in New York
• The Paths of Water: Hydrological Cycle
• Website Usage: Bottled Water Company in Nigeria Case
• All the Water on Europa: Astronomy Picture of the Day
• Battled Water and Jewelry: Product Analysis
• Water Management: Soft-Path Approach in Abu Dhabi
• Integrated Sustainable Water Resource Management
• Heavy Crude Oil Emulsification in Water
• Year-Round Water Access in South Asian Countries
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority: Sustainable Management
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority’s Strategic Options
• Trends in Water Supply and Sustainable Consumption
• Water Management: Best Practices
• Water Maze Experiment for Hydergine Drugs Testing
• Ablution Water Recycling in Mosques
• Privatized Kuwaiti Ministry of Electricity and Water
• Abu Dhabi Climate, Water Usage and Food Production
• Chemical Contamination of Ground or Surface Water
• Water Billing IT Solutions Company Business Plan
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Water Quality
• Turbidity and Total Suspended Solids of Water: Lentic and Lotic Sites
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority’s Tech Innovations
• Dubai Electricity & Water Authority’s Asset Lifecycle
• Dubai Electricity & Water Authority’s Cost Management
• Drinking Water Distribution System
• The Chippewa Cree Tribe’s Water Rights
• Tribal Water Rights and Influence on the State Future
• Water Quality as a Concern for Urban Areas
• Solar-Powered Water Cooler System
• How Saudi Arabia Can Overcome Economic Water Crisis?
• Water Pollution and Associated Health Risks
• California Water Shortages and Long-Term Solutions
• Lake Erie Water Pollution
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority: Consultation
• Preserving of the Drinkable Water Worldwide
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority’s Empowerment
• American Water Company: Users and Systems Specialists Role
• Water Price Hike and Its Effects on the UK Economy
• Water Drinking Increasing Skin Moisture Balance
• Water Crisis Resolution and Investments
• Food and Water Quality Testing Device
• UAE Federal Electricity and Water Authority’s Policies
• Water and Soil Resources Issues in the Middle East
• Mountain Valley Spring Water Advertising
• Sunflower Plant Growth With Minimal Water Requirements
• Water & Air Pollution and Health Issues in Brazil
• Pure Home Water Company: Business Model
• Pure Home Water Company’s Environment
• Disposable Water Bottle Usage by Youth Population
• The Gardens of Islam: Water and Shade
• Potable Water Supply in the Gulf Region
• Water Resources: History and Potential Impacts
• Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan
• The Jordan River Water Issues and Hydropolitics
• Water-Energy Nexus Explained
• Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control
• Smart Water Grids and Water Sustainability
• Water Control Issue in the United Arab Emirates
• Food and Water Waste Disposal in NYC
• Dubai Electricity and Water Authority: Employee Performance
• Economic View on Water and Pollution
• Barwon Water Company’s Management and Service Analysis
• The Nile River: Water Issues and Hydropolitics
• Water Crisis, Oceans and Sea Turtles Issues
• Water Tailing Technologies Issues
• Sharjah Electricity & Water Authority’s Customer Satisfaction
• Water Pollution and Management in the UAE
• Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Authority’s Pre-Assessment Audit
• EPA Rules Effect on Perchlorate in Drinking Water
• Quality Management of the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority
• Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Company’ Demand Forecasting
• Environmental Health: Lead Exposure in Water
• Water Yield Re-Estimation From the Catchment Due to Bushfire
• The Human Right to Water: History, Meaning and Controversy
• “Vitamin-Enriched” Bottled Water: PEST Analysis
• World Water Needs: Water Scarcity Problem in Australia
• The Water Nexus Model in the UAE
• Water Related Conflicts in Africa
• Clean Water Problem in Singapore
• Water Consumption on the Household Level
• Water Paradox: “The Wealth of Nations” by Adam Smith
• Water Scarcity, Marketing, and Privatisation
• Reduce Chemical Spills by Using Green Water Purification
• Reducing Chemical Contamination on Water
• Effective Methods to Increase Water Quality
• Sanitation of Reserve Resources: Unsafe Drinking Water
• Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Authority’ Quality Planning
• Water Resources Ecology: Current Issues and Strategies
• Blue Gold: World Water War Documentary
• Thirstier Mineral Water – Marketing
• Safe Drinking Water Importance
• Water Crisis in the Documentary “Chinatown”
• Mars: Water and the Martian Landscape
• Saving Energy Systems: Water Heater Technology
• Jordan River’ Water Issues and Hydropolitics
• Water Symbolism in Christianity and Islam
• Banning Hosepipe Use as a Poor Solution to a Water Shortage
• Criminology: Water Boarding Torture
• Blue Gold: Global Water Crisis
• City of Newark Public Water Supply System
• Water Distribution in Boston
• Environmental Studies: Water Contamination in China
• Is Bottled Water Ethical?
• Water Purification Process
• Water Quality & Drinking Water Treatment
• Dialysis Water Treatment System
• Kant’s Philosophy: Water and Ethics
• Water Pollution and Its Challenges
• The Three Methods of Water Supply
• Management of Water Supply Projects in Malaysia
• Drinking and Bathing Water in Sabah
• Perchlorate in Drinking Water
• Impact of PPP Projects in Energy and Water Sectors in the MENA Region
• Potential Reduction in Irrigation Water Through the Use of Water-Absorbent Polymers in Agriculture in UAE
• Water Pollution Sources, Effects and Control
• Water Resources Deterioration Consequences in the GCC Countries
• Marketing Plan for Water Sensitive Nail Polish
• Society’s Impact on Water Recourses
• Effects of Lead and Lead Compounds on Soil, Water, and Air
• Knowledge Management: Maroochy Water Services
• Promotional Strategy for the New Water Based Theme Park in Darling Harbor
• Marketing Strategy for Bottled Water in Hong Kong
• Water Boarding as a Form of Criminal Interrogation in the US
• Scarcity of Water in Saudi Arabia, Africa and Australia
• The Ancient and the Medieval Worlds: The Use of Water Power
• Power Water Corporation (PWC): Compiling a Business Strategy
• Availability of Water Resources in United Arab Emirates
• Water Shortages in the World
• Chloramine in Drinking Water: When the Threat of Pollution Emerges
• The Hydrologic Cycle and Water on Earth
• British Petroleum Company: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
• Chloramine Breakdown in Drinking Water and Possible Consequences
• Water Management in Houston
• Cold Water Creek Comprehensive Case
• “Water and Pollution” Class Game
• Global Water Scarcity Causes and Solutions
• Technologies in Improving Air Quality Management Due to Waste Water
• Environmental Justice and Water: Quality, Affordability and Sustainable Use. Facing the Dilemmas of the XXI Century
• Water Quality and Treatment
• Water in Crisis: Public Health Concerns in Africa
• Water War in the Middle East
• Reclamation of Grey Water & Refinery Oily Wastewater Using Bioprocesses Treatment
• Factors Affecting Access to Water Resources in South Asia, the Middle East and the Nile River Basin
• Water War in Bolivia
• Bottled Water: Tropical Spring Water Company
• Protecting Water Resources in South Asia
• Can Hot Water Freeze Faster Than Cold Water?
• Water Wars in Bolivia
• Water Consumption in the World
• Political Ecology and Water Resources
• Design Systems. Water Supply & Sanitation
• Drinking Water and Culture in the Valley of Mexico
• Water Usage in University of Ottawa
• Air and Water Pollution
• Critical Book Analysis – Blue Gold: The Battle Against Corporate Theft of the World’s Water by Maude Barlow and Tony Clarke
• Green Buildings and Their Efficiency Water Consumption
• Water Resources and Usage
• The Planning Action to Bring Water to the Town Population
• The “Bling H2O” as the Luxury Bottled Water
• Privatization of the World’s Water and Wars of Water
• The Effect of Animal Reburial on the Soil Structure and Water
• Analysis of High Recovery Brackish Water Desalination Processes using Fuel Cells by Rajindar Singh
• The Entrance of Bling H2O Into the Bottled Water Market
• Australian, Perth Water Supply Crisis
• Bottled Water Effect on Environment and Culture
• Environmental and Cultural Impact of Bottled Water
• The Privatization or Commodification of Water
• Western Water Company Overview
• Water Resources in Economic
• Water Regional Police Services Project Implementation
• Biblical Living Water Explained
• Providing Access to Clean Water
• The Global Water Shortage
• Water Consumption in the UAE: Analyzing the Past Mistakes, Designing the Future Strategy
• Fat- and Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Mineral and Water Function
• Causes of Water Pollution and the Present Environmental Solution
• Water Balance in Berkeley and Terre Haute
• Water Pollution & Diseases (Undeveloped Nations)
• Trend Analysis: Water Scarcity Issue
• Water and Water Pollution in Point of Economics’ View
• Water Scarcity and Its Effects on the Environment
• The Water Distribution System of Springfield City
• Safety of Recycled Water for Drinking
• Diffusion of Water as the Important Factor in the Development Egypt and in United States
• Environmental Justice Issues Affecting African Americans: Water Pollution
• Threats to Water Availability in Canada
• Economics of Water Bottling
• Dubai Water & Electricity Company
• Pesticide Usage and Water Scarcity
• Why the Water Bears are the Most Appropriate Animals to Send to Mars for Human Research
• Water Pollution and Wind Energy
• Description of the Water Resource Problem (Origins)
• Air and Water Pollution in Los Angeles
• Classification of Water-Related Diseases
• Water Pollution Causes and Climate Impacts
• Water Distribution System in Spain
• Water Distribution System Used by the State of Texas
• Company Profile: Western Water
• Water Crisis in UAE
• Water Pollution Origins and Ways of Resolving
• Mud Lick Creek Project – Fresh Water Pollution
• Water Quality Issues in Developing Countries
• Comparison of Secondary and Tertiary Waste Water Management
• Housing; Safety of Beach Water Users
• Water Distribution System in Boston
• Water Resources Management
• Does Salt Affect the Freezing Point of Water?
• What Is the Biggest Problem Concerning Water Today?
• Does Too Much Water Help Plants Grow More Rapidly?
• How Can Leaders Tackle With Water Pollution in China?
• How Are Farmers Growing More Crops With Less Water Than Before?
• What Is the Healthiest Type of Water to Drink?
• How Does Human Activity in Watersheds Affect the Water Quality of Lakes?
• Will We Ever Run Out of Water?
• How Does the Temperature of Water Affect How Fast Sugar Can Dissolve?
• How Harmful Can Bottled Water Be?
• What Factors Affect the Cooling of Hot Water in a Container?
• What Are the Two Main Problems With Water?
• Why Diverting Water From the Great Lakes Region Is a Bad Idea?
• What Are the Benefits of Drinking Water?
• How Much Water Should People Drink?
• Why Bottled Water Should Be Free?
• What Is the Proper Way to Drink Water?
• What Is the Best Time to Drink Water?
• Who Is the Biggest Water Company?
• What Are the Challenges for Water Industry?
• What Is the Value of the Water Industry?
• Why Do 785 Million People Lack Access To Clean Water?
• What Is the Best Selling Water?
• Which Type of Water Is the Purest and Safest To Drink?
• How Are Water Companies Funded?
• How Does Drinking Water Pollution Impact the World?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Confronting the Nation's Water Problems: The Role of Research (2004)

Chapter: 3 water resources research priorities for the future, 3 water resources research priorities for the future.

The pressing nature of water resource problems was set forth in Chapter 1 . The solution to these problems is necessarily sought in research—inquiry into the basic natural and societal processes that govern the components of a given problem, combined with inquiry into possible methods for solving these problems. In many fields, descriptions of research priorities structure the ways in which researchers match their expertise and experience to both societal needs and the availability of research funding. Statements of research priorities also evolve as knowledge is developed, questions are answered, and new societal issues and pressures emerge. Thus, the formulation of research priorities has a profound effect on the conduct of research and the likelihood of finding solutions to problems.

Statements of research priorities developed by a group of scientists or managers with a common perspective within their field of expertise can have a relatively narrow scope. Indeed, this phenomenon has resulted in numerous independent sets of research priorities for various aspects of water resources. This has come about because water plays an important role in a strikingly large number of disciplines, ranging from ecology to engineering and economics—disciplines that otherwise have little contact with each other. Thus, priority lists from ecologists emphasize ecosystem integrity, priority lists from water treatment professionals emphasize the quantity and quality of the water supply, and priority lists from hydrologists emphasize water budgets and hydrologic processes. In recent years, the limitations of discipline-based perspectives have become clear, as researchers and managers alike have recognized that water problems relevant to society necessarily integrate across the physical, chemical, biological, and social sciences. Narrowly conceived research produces inadequate solutions to such problems;

these in turn provide little useful guidance for management because critical parts of the system have been ignored. For example, the traditional subdivision of water resource issues into those of quality and quantity is now seen as inadequate to structure future research, given that water quality and quantity are intimately, causally, and mechanistically connected. Similarly, theoretical studies of water flows (hydrology) and aquatic ecosystems (limnology) can no longer be viewed as independent subjects, as each materially affects the other in myriad ways. Finally, the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of water cannot adequately be investigated without reference to the human imprint on all facets of the earth’s surface. Thus, the challenge in identifying water resources research needs is to engage researchers in novel collaborations and novel ways of perceiving the research topics that they have traditionally investigated.

Water resources research priorities were recently extensively considered by the Water Science and Technology Board (WSTB) in Envisioning the Agenda for Water Resources Research in the Twenty-first Century (NRC, 2001a). This resulted in a detailed, comprehensive list of research needs, grouped into three categories ( Table 3-1 ); the reader is referred to NRC (2001a) for a detailed description of each research need. The category of water availability emphasizes the interrelated nature of water quantity and water quality problems and it recognizes the increasing pressures on water supply to provide for both human and ecosystem needs. The category of water use includes not only research questions about managing human consumptive and nonconsumptive use of water, but also about the use of water by aquatic ecosystems and endangered or threatened species. The third category, water institutions , emphasizes the need for research into the economic, social, and institutional forces that shape both the availability and use of water.

After review and reconsideration, the committee concluded that the priorities enumerated in the Envisioning report constitute the most comprehensive and current best statement of water resources research needs. Moreover, successful pursuit of that research agenda could provide answers to the central questions posed in Chapter 1 . However, the list of research topics is not ranked, either within the three general categories or as a complete set of 43. An absolute ranking would be difficult to achieve, as all are important parts of a national water resources research agenda. Furthermore, the list of research priorities can be expected to change over time, reflecting both changes in the generators of such lists and in the conditions to which they are responding. This chapter, thus, provides a mechanism for reviewing, updating, and prioritizing research areas in this and subsequent lists. It should be noted that the 43 research areas in Table 3-1 are of varying complexity and breadth. In addition, the committee expanded research area #21 (develop more efficient water use) from the version found in the Envisioning report to include all sectors rather than just the agricultural sector.

The increasing urgency of water-related issues has stimulated a number of scientific societies and governmental entities, in addition to the WSTB, to produce

TABLE 3-1 Water Resources Research Areas that Should Be Emphasized in the Next 10–15 Years

their own lists of research priorities. For example, the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography recently convened a workshop to draft a list of emerging research issues (ASLO, 2003). These issues included the biogeochemistry of aquatic ecosystems, the influence of hydrogeomorphic setting on aquatic systems, the impacts of global changes in climate and element cycles, and emerging measurement technologies. This list builds on the comprehensive analysis of research priorities for freshwater ecosystems set forth in The Freshwater Imperative ( Box 2-1 ; see also Naiman et al., 1995). Another list of research priorities was recently assembled by the European Commission (2003), Task Force Environment–Water, which emphasizes water availability and water quality and the social, economic, and political aspects of water management. Like the NRC (2001a) report, this research agenda sets forth broad areas of research, with more specific “action lines” within high-priority areas. However, the approach differs from NRC (2001a) in that water quality is separated from water availability, and the socioeconomic and political research agenda is oriented toward crisis management. The U.S. Global Change Program also identified interrelated issues of quantity, quality, and human society as key research needs (Gleick et al., 2000);

this research agenda emphasizes the development of models and methods of prediction as well as data collection and monitoring systems, and it emphasizes research on the socioeconomic and legal impacts of climate change.

This brief review of selected contemporary lists of research priorities, as well as the lists of research priorities shown in Box 2-1 , illustrates that the articulation and the ranking of research topics vary with the entity charged to develop a research agenda. It can be anticipated that future lists of priorities will also differ from these.

A METHOD FOR SETTING PRIORITIES OF A NATIONAL RESEARCH AGENDA

The business of setting priorities for water resources research needs to be more than a matter of summing up the priorities of the numerous federal agencies, professional associations, and federal committees. Indeed, there is no logical reason why such a list should add up to a nationally relevant set of priorities, as each agency has its own agenda limited by its particular mission, just as each disciplinary group and each committee does. There is a high probability that research priorities not specifically under the aegis of a particular agency or other organization will be significantly neglected. Indeed, the institutional issues that constitute one of the three major themes in Table 3-1 are not explicitly targeted in the mission of any federal agency. This is the current state of affairs in the absence of a more coordinated mechanism for setting a national water resources research agenda.

A more rigorous process for priority setting should be adopted—one that will allow the water resources research enterprise to remain flexible and adaptable to changing conditions and emerging problems. Such a mechanism is also essential to ensure that water resources research needs are considered from a national and long-term perspective. The components of such a priority-setting process are outlined below, in the form of six questions or criteria that can be used to assess individual research areas and thus to assemble a responsive and effective national research agenda. In order to ensure the required flexibility and national-scale perspective, the criteria should also be applied to individual research areas during periodic reviews of the research enterprise.

Is there a federal role in this research area? This question is important for evaluating the “public good” nature of the water resources research area. A federal role is appropriate in those research areas where the benefits of such research are widely dispersed and do not accrue only to those who fund the research. Furthermore, it is important to consider whether the research area is being or even can be addressed by institutions other than the federal government.

What is the expected value of this research? This question addresses the importance attached to successful results, either in terms of direct problem solving or advancement of fundamental knowledge of water resources.

To what extent is the research of national significance? National significance is greatest for research areas (1) that address issues of large-scale concern (for example, because they encompass a region larger than an individual state), (2) that are driven by federal legislation or mandates, and (3) whose benefits accrue to a broad swath of the public (for example, because they address a problem that is common across the nation). Note that while there is overlap between the first and third criteria, research may have public good properties while not being of national significance, and vice versa.

Does the research fill a gap in knowledge? If the research area fills a knowledge gap, it should clearly be of higher priority than research that is duplicative of other efforts. Furthermore, there are several common underlying themes that, given the expected future complexity of water resources research, should be used to evaluate research areas:

the interdisciplinary nature of the research

the need for a broad systems context in phrasing research questions and pursuing answers

the incorporation of uncertainty concepts and measurements into all aspects of research

how well the research addresses the role of adaptation in human and ecological response to changing water resources

These themes, and their importance in combating emerging water resources problems, are described in detail in this chapter.

How well is this research area progressing? The adequacy of efforts in a given research area can be evaluated with respect to the following:

current funding levels and funding trends over time

whether the research area is part of the agenda of one or more federal agencies

whether prior investments in this type of research have produced results (i.e., the level of success of this type of research in the past and why new efforts are warranted)

These questions are addressed with respect to the current water resources research portfolio in Chapter 4 .

How does the research area complement the overall water resources research portfolio? The portfolio approach is built on the premise that a diverse mix of holdings is the least risky way to maximize return on investments. When applied to federal research and development, the portfolio concept is invoked to mean a mix between applied research and fundamental research (Eiseman et al., 2002). Indeed, the priority-setting process should be as much dedicated to ensuring an appropriate balance and mix of research efforts as it is to listing specific research topics. In the context of water resources, a diversified portfolio would capture the following desirable elements of a national research agenda:

multiple national objectives related to increasing water availability, improving water quality and ecological functions, and strengthening institutional and management practices

short-, intermediate-, and long-term research goals supporting national objectives

agency-based, contract, and investigator-driven research

both national and region-specific problems being encompassed

data collection needs to support all of the above

Thus, the water resources research agenda should be balanced in terms of the time scale of the effort (short-term vs. long-term), the source of the problem statements (investigator-driven vs. problem-driven), the goal of the research (fundamental vs. applied), and the investigators conducting the work (internally vs. externally conducted). An individual research area should be evaluated for its ability to complement existing research priorities with respect to these characteristics. Definitions of these terms are provided in Box 3-1 , and the appropriate balance among these categories is addressed in Chapters 4 and 6 .

Furthermore, it is important to consider whether the research fills gaps in the desired mix of water availability, water use, and institutional topics (as demarcated in Table 3-1 ). A final level of evaluation would consider how well the research responds to the four themes described in this chapter (interdisciplinarity, broad systems context, evaluation of uncertainty, and adaptation).

To summarize, a balanced water resources research agenda will include items of national significance for which a federal role is necessary; fill knowledge gaps in all three topical areas (water availability, water use, and institutions); incorporate a mixture of short-term and long-term research, basic and applied investigations, investigator-initiated and mission-driven research, and internal and external efforts; and build upon existing funding and research success. As noted above, some of these issues are addressed in subsequent chapters, with respect to the current water resources research agenda (see Table 3-1 ). The remainder of this chapter expands upon the four overarching themes that should form the context within which water resources research is conceptualized and performed.

THEMES OF FUTURE WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH

There are several common underlying themes that should be used to (1) integrate and reconcile the numerous lists of research priorities currently being generated by agencies and scientific societies and (2) provide some overall direction to the multiple agencies and academic entities that carry out water resources research. These themes are interdisciplinarity, a broad systems context, uncertainty, and adaptation in human and ecological response to changing water resources.

The term interdisciplinarity refers to the fact that no question about water resources can be now adequately addressed within the confines of traditional disciplines. The research community recognizes that the physical, chemical, and biological/ecological characteristics of water resources are causally and mechanistically interrelated, and all are profoundly affected by the human presence in the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to understand water resources with reference to a range of natural and social scientific disciplines.

The phrase broad system context refers to the perception that all properties of water are part of a complex network of interacting factors, in which the processes that connect the factors are as important as the factors themselves. Both interdisciplinarity and broad systems context place water resources within the emerging field of complex systems (Holland, 1995; Holland and Grayston, 1998).

Uncertainty —the degree of confidence in the results and conclusions of research—has always been an important component of scientific research. All measurements and observations entail some degree of error, as do methods of data analysis, estimation, and modeling. Understanding the sources and amounts of uncertainty attached to estimates of flow, water quality, and other water resource variables is crucial, because so many practical and often expensive decisions hinge on the results. In short, understanding and measuring uncertainty are central to making informed decisions about water resources. Furthermore, an emphasis on uncertainty also implies attention to the extent and quality of the data available for generating estimates of important variables; this attention in turn implies a need to improve technologies for research and monitoring. Finally, an understanding of the uncertainties in data, models, and scientific knowledge lies at the heart of risk analysis and the development of policies and strategies to handle complex environmental problems (Handmer et al., 2001).

Finally, adaptation is a key component of the human, as well as ecological, response to the ever-changing environment. Human society has always changed in response to changing resources; the challenge is now to anticipate environmental changes and develop adaptive responses before catastrophe or conflict force such evolution. This is particularly pressing as research ascertains the impact of human activities on ecosystems, such as greenhouse gas release into the atmosphere and deforestation. Adaptation may involve modifying social mores and norms or forming new government policies including economic policies. For

example, there is little doubt among many researchers that emerging water scarcity will demand greatly altered expectations and behaviors in society. It may also involve new methods of managing resources in which flexibility to respond to unanticipated or rapidly occurring problems is the guiding principle.

These four themes are illustrated below, using a subset of the research priorities developed in Table 3-1 . The portfolio of existing water resources research tends not to be organized along these thematic lines.

INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF RESEARCH

The need for expertise from many disciplines to solve individual water resource problems is widely recognized and has produced repeated calls for collaborative, interdisciplinary approaches to research (Cullen et al., 1999; Naiman and Turner, 2000; Jackson et al., 2001). For example, aquatic ecosystems research now emphasizes the tight linkages between the traditional biological and ecological issues and both hydrology and human use of water (Poff et al., 1997; Richter et al., 1997). Similarly, the transformations of nutrients and pollutants reflect the interplay of hydrology and microbial ecology (Brunke and Gonser, 1997). Examples of several research areas from Table 3-1 are given below to elaborate on the interdisciplinary nature of water resources research.

outline of contaminant fate and transport makes it clear that this research priority necessitates a collaborative effort by physical chemists, soil scientists, hydrologists, geologists, microbiologists, plant scientists, and ecologists.

Similarly, wetlands are structured by water regimes in which very small variations in flow timing and amounts, in seasonal patterns of flow variation, in flow extremes, and in the duration of wet and dry events have very large effects on the biota (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000; NRC, 2001b). Withdrawals of both groundwater and surface waters for human use can alter the flow regime, such that even subtle alterations can have large effects on the biota and function of the downgradient wetlands. Current controversy about the failure of mitigation methods and policy to meet the goal of “no net loss” of wetlands (Turner et al., 2001) is rooted in the difficulty of reproducing wetland hydrology in created and restored wetlands (NRC, 1995, 2001b). At the same time, the institutions and policies that are used to implement the goal of “no net loss” are being questioned and challenged. Wetland restoration thus demands research that integrates hydrology, plant and animal ecology, and social science.

approach is urgently needed. There are numerous factors that can confound the successful operation of irrigation projects on a sustainable basis. Problems related to climate variability, soil salinity, deterioration of the irrigation infrastructure, and social instability contributed to the collapse of the ancient empires, like the Akkadians and Sassanians who lived in the Tigris and Euphrates River valley, or the Hohokams who prospered for a millennium along the Gila and Salt rivers of now south-central Arizona (Postel, 1999). Today’s challenges are expected to be similar, because irrigation agriculture is associated with arid and semiarid environments where climate variability significantly impedes the successful long-term operation of these systems. In modern times, storage provided by large dams has reduced the impact of short-term fluctuations in climate. However, the looming prospect of global climate change, coupled with water demands of growing populations, has tremendous implications for irrigated agriculture in the next century (NAST, 2000).

The research challenges are to provide better projections of how climate might change and to improve hydrologic observation systems to document these changes (NAST, 2000). In addition, because large-scale structural solutions for water supply for irrigated agriculture are difficult to justify on social and economic grounds (Pulwarty, 2003), social science research on determinants of water use in the agricultural sector and agronomic research on improved crop varieties for dryland agriculture are needed. The problem of sustaining irrigated agriculture becomes even more interdisciplinary when one considers the need to understand the response of soils and surface water systems (in terms of chemistry and ecology) to alterations in irrigation return flows and the need to understand how economics might produce flexible strategies for irrigation. Assessments like those relating to the restoration of the Colorado River delta (Luecke et al., 1999) or the San Francisco Bay delta (McClurg, 1997) make clear the inherent multidisciplinarity of developing water supply systems for irrigated agriculture within an environment of competing demands and constraints.

Efforts are underway to reduce the nonpoint source contamination of the nation’s waters (e.g., Mississippi River Task Force, 2001). However, the enormous scope and scale of the problem are daunting, as land-use practices in several sectors of the economy often result in degradation of water resources in areas far downstream from the site(s) of impact. For example, excessive loading of nitrogen derived mainly from agriculture in the Midwest has contributed to an oxygen-

depleted zone in the Gulf of Mexico that can be as large as the state of New Jersey (Goolsby and Battaglin, 2000). Solving this problem requires not only resolving multiple scientific questions, but also resolving social, economic, and political complexities at scales ranging from the local to the national. Combating nonpoint source pollution will require both basic and applied research. For example, although good progress is being made in elucidating factors controlling contaminant loading (e.g., Alexander et al., 2000; Dubrovsky et al., 1998; Porter et al., 2001), more work is required to understand the fate and transport of nonpoint source pollutants and their fundamental effects on human and environmental health, particularly for pesticides and their transformation products (USGS, 1999). This understanding will require decades of high-resolution chemical and biological monitoring coupled with new analytical and modeling approaches.

The key physical approaches for controlling nonpoint source contamination are local mitigation strategies provided by wetlands, sedimentation ponds, and riparian areas along streams, and land-management strategies that reduce runoff and chemical use. Mitigation is an expensive option, both in terms of implementation and reductions in farmed area. Considerable research will be needed in proof-of-concept, design, and in cost/benefit analyses, requiring the participation of ecologists, soil scientists, hydrologists, and geologists to determine the appropriate size, type, and placement of structures. Changes to farming practices on a continental scale will require equally complex research by agronomists, soil scientists, hydrologists, economists, and social scientists because broad stakeholder education and involvement, voluntary actions, new legislative authority, and coordination across localities and regions will be necessary to implement such changes (Mississippi River Task Force, 2001). Finally, contaminant fluxes from land to streams and rivers may well undergo chronic increases as a result of larger rainfall events associated with future climate change. Thus, progress in controlling nonpoint contamination will require interdisciplinary research linking the historically important areas of agriculture, hydrology, and biology with emerging areas of climate change, natural resource economics, education, and human dimensions of decision making.

BROAD SYSTEMS CONTEXT

The systems approach mandates that a problem be addressed by specifying the entities that contribute to the problem, the linkages among these entities, the logical or physical boundaries to the system, and the inputs and outputs to the system as a whole (in other words, linkages to entities deemed to be outside the system). The idea has its roots in physics, in which a “system” is a thermodynamic concept related to the flow and conservation of energy. The linkages among entities within a system are as important as the entities themselves; thus, a system is more than the sum of its parts (see Box 3-2 ). Systems usually show nonlinear dynamics, and the nonlinearities among sets of linked entities often lead to

unanticipated and complex behavior, and also to surprises—events that cannot be exactly predicted, or that are outside the realm of prior experience. Indeed, these characteristics of system behavior have been highlighted as key aspects of environmental problems (NRC, 1997a). Thus, considering water resources research within a broad systems context implies elucidating interrelationships among entities that, at first glance, might not be thought to be related. This approach also mandates that small-scale problems be viewed within a larger-scale perspective, which may profoundly alter the understanding of causal and quantitative relationships.

The need to view some of the research priorities set forth in Table 3-1 within a broad systems context is illustrated below.

As an example, the Idaho Department of Water Resources increasingly must resolve conflicts among citizens concerning competing demands for (and assertion of rights over) surface water and groundwater, and it also must resolve interstate water conflicts between Idaho and neighboring states (Dreher, 2003). Provision of adequate water for the habitats of endangered and threatened aquatic species is also part of the state’s responsibilities. Idaho contains six aquifers that span interstate lines and that affect surface water flows in adjoining states. Currently, management of both groundwater and surface water supplies is being undertaken without adequate knowledge of the connections between the two sources, leading to conflicts and shortages. The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the entire regional hydrogeologic system and its links to both human use and natural ecosystems is leading to increased litigation, with current needs not being met. In order to help resolve these conflicts, management agencies need

accurate measurements of water flows and water stocks over a range of temporal and spatial scales. Moreover, the influences of natural processes, natural climate variability, and human intervention in the water system must be monitored.

transpiration rates from vegetation and evaporation rates from the soil surface, thus altering soil and atmospheric moisture content and the likelihood of rain and forest fire. These in turn will have large effects on regional hydrology. These connections, which have been well documented for tropical rain forests, are germane to understanding the connections between hydrology and climate worldwide.

Moreover, the driving force for global climate change—the rise in greenhouse gas concentrations associated with human activities—will also affect aquatic ecosystems in ways that may amplify or dampen the effects of hydrologic change alone. For example, higher CO 2 concentrations will alter leaf chemistry and the relative growth rates of different plant species. Both changes may affect the palatability of litter to decomposer and consumer organisms, in turn affecting decomposition rates, nutrient cycling rates, and ultimately the density and species

composition of the plant community. Changing CO 2 concentrations may also affect pH of the water, with cascading effects on the biota, although changes in flow regime may interact with increased dissolution of CO 2 to modify this effect. These feedbacks are being incorporated into the models that are used to predict the effects of greenhouse gas emissions on climate and water resources. Unfortunately, the great complexity of the system results in model predictions that span a range of values too large and uncertain to be usable for regional or local water resource management at this time (Chase et al., 2003).

Just as energy supply interacts with water use in multiple ways, as described above, energy extraction (for example, oil and gas development in the West) similarly affects water use in complex ways. Impacts of energy extraction on biotic resources may affect water supply and water use indirectly, by limiting potential options to manage water resources. For example, recent and rapid development of methane gas resources in the Powder River Basin is causing major disruptions in groundwater supply sources (BLM, 2003). Depending on the method of energy extraction, water quality is often impaired. Drilling muds, for example, frequently contain additives that have the potential to contaminate downstream or downgradient water supplies (EPA, 2000).

UNCERTAINTY

Water resource management relies on monitoring data, scientific understanding of processes in the water cycle and the ecology of aquatic ecosystems, and ultimately predictive models that can forecast hydrologic conditions and biotic and human responses. All of these types of information are subject to uncertainty. Uncertainty results from many sources, including measurement systems that are not sufficiently precise or that do not generate sufficient quantities of high-quality data, instrument failures, human errors in designing and implementing studies, and simply a lack of understanding of the processes and phenomena under investigation. Uncertainty affects both the analysis of data and the construction of models to make water resource predictions. Although inherent to research, uncertainty can be managed by explicit recognition of its occurrence coupled with quantitative methods of measuring its importance and incorporating it into decision making. By describing the degree of uncertainty in research results (and by inference the reliability of the measurements and models), researchers can adjust the expectations for the use of their data and models accordingly. Reliable estimates of uncertainty contribute directly to successful risk management and the development of environmental policy (Funtowicz and Ravetz, 1990; Dovers et al., 2001). It should be noted that the above definition of uncertainty is broader than that espoused by some federal agencies (e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, for which uncertainty refers to situations in which the probability of potential outcomes and their results cannot be described by objectively known probability distributions). Below are examples illustrating the importance of the quantification of uncertainty for some of the research priorities listed in Table 3-1 .

To predict the fate and transport of contaminants from the proposed repository, the DOE has developed a complex mathematical model called Total System Performance Assessment (TSPA) that itself depends on the output of dozens of process-oriented models. The success of the DOE’s license application depends in large measure on the confidence placed in the TSPA predictions of contaminant transport and the technical basis for those predictions. Conceptual and model uncertainty and the explicit quantification of this uncertainty are central to the question of technical basis. As noted by the U.S. Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board in a letter to Congress (NWTRB, 2002): “Resolving all uncertainty is neither necessary nor possible. However, uncertainties about the performance of those components of the repository system relied upon to isolate waste are very important, and information on the extent of uncertainty and assumed conservatism associated with the performance of these components may be important to policy makers, the technical community, and the public.” Regardless of policymakers’ and the public’s varying levels of tolerance for uncertainty, it can still be said that results of research to quantify, and perhaps further reduce, uncertainties can contribute to the quality and credibility of impending public policy decisions.

remediate polluted waterbodies. Mandated by the Clean Water Act, a TMDL is a calculation of the maximum pollutant loading that a waterbody can sustain and still meet its water quality standards. If the current loadings are higher, then the TMDL must be accompanied by a remedial plan on how to reduce the loadings via best management practices (BMPs). TMDLs are established for an impaired waterbody by using a combination of fate and transport models for the target pollutant or stressor and available waterbody data. This requires both watershed models (which take into account such processes as the movement of pollutants across land) and water quality models (which incorporate in-lake pollutant transport and transformation). Models are also potentially needed to predict the effectiveness of certain BMPs. Many of the watershed and water quality models in use suffer from inadequate representation of physicochemical processes, inappropriate applicability, and lack of training of model users (EPA, 2002). Similarly, the data on which TMDLs are based may be inconsistent in quality or inappropriate in terms of the frequency and extent of sampling. Finally, the methods used to identify impaired waterbodies are often inadequate because of deficiencies in state monitoring networks. All of these problems generate uncertainties in the applicability and effectiveness of the resulting TMDL. The development of improved methods of quantifying uncertainty in both the models and the listing criteria, especially in setting “margin of safety” criteria, is critical if informed decisions about restoring polluted waterbodies are to be made. Indeed, the central role of uncertainty has been a major conclusion of several recent studies critically examining the TMDL program (NRC, 2001c; Borsuk et al., 2002; EPA, 2002).

Water resource managers are subject to increasingly diverse, often conflicting forces. For example, it was relatively simple to develop the knowledge base needed to provide predictable amounts of water to agriculture when this was the only use for a water supply. It becomes much more complicated when agricultural uses need to be met while new demands come from urbanizing areas and from governmental and nongovernmental entities demanding water for endangered species or aquatic ecosystem support, such that the total demand exceeds the readily available supply. In such contexts, adaptability becomes essential. Managers, users, and advocates need to have the flexibility to imagine and adopt novel solutions to water resource problems, and researchers in their search for solutions need to have the flexibility to adapt their research to problems that may have been unimaginable in the recent past. Furthermore, the complexity of current problems may demand that combinations of solutions be applied creatively to different components of a problem. This emphasis on adaptability of both the research community and the managers and users of water needs to be an organizing concept for water resources research. Thus, “adaptation” is defined as a combination of flexibility in solving problems and, more fundamentally, a shift in

norms and standards that can result from confronting novel situations. A related concept in water resources is that of adaptive management, a learning-while-doing process in which a management action is viewed as an experiment, and as managers learn from their successes and failures, they adjust their management actions accordingly (Holling, 1978; Geldof, 1995; Haney and Power, 1996; Wieringa and Morton, 1996; Lee, 1999; NRC, 1999, 2003b, 2004b).

Below are examples of how adaptation is a key element in addressing some of the research priorities listed in Table 3-1 .

This combination of challenges will require adaptability on the part of both researchers and users. For example, creative water delivery systems, such as inhome gray water recycling or dual-home distribution systems (Wilchfort and Lund, 1997) that bring potable water to a few taps and slightly less pure water to other taps for cleaning purposes or industrial needs, will require research. This includes research to develop the technologies to implement such systems and research to understand how people adapt to new modes of obtaining and using water (see Box 3-3 ) and how such a transition might be effected. Individuals’ views of water-related risks (Loewenstein et al., 2001), in-home uses of water, and the value of water resources (Aini et al., 2001) will also need to adapt in order for these technological changes to be successful in maintaining drinking water quality.

diverse biological community within aquatic and riparian ecosystems. However, human actions to minimize floods and droughts and to provide reliable water for consumption at constant rates can eliminate this natural variability (Dynesius and Nilsson, 1994). In order to balance these effects, management of the water, the ecosystem, and the affected social groups must be adaptive in several respects.

For example, ecological restoration, while guided by ideals of the undisturbed or historical state of the ecosystem, increasingly must accept the lesser but still critical goal of repairing damaged systems to a partially restored state. This will be necessary because of insufficient knowledge of the undisturbed state, permanent alteration of the landscape through built structures and intensive land use, and the prevalence of nearly ineradicable nonnative species. An example is provided by the Laurentian Great Lakes, where overfishing and the onslaught of the sea lamprey brought about the decline of native fishes, including the lake trout. At the same time, exotic species of smaller “forage” fish proliferated, resulting in the famous die-off of alewives that littered Chicago’s beaches in the early 1970s. Fisheries managers attempted a bold experiment, importing coho and king salmon from the Pacific Northwest, a highly successful adaptation to a “collapsing” ecosystem. Now with well over one hundred nonnative species, the Great Lakes pose a continuing challenge to ecologists and fisheries managers seeking to manage and restore the ecosystem.

Adaptation is anticipated to be particularly difficult but absolutely essential in large aquatic ecosystems where there are multiple competing interests (fisheries scientists, communities relying on fishing, farmers, water resource and dam managers, etc.) (Peterson, 2000). The scale of conflicts arising from the plexus of interests involved in large-scale ecosystem restoration is illustrated by the recent Klamath (NRC, 2003a) and Columbia River controversies (Gregory et al., 2002; NRC, 1996, 2004a). Clearly, research is needed to develop adaptive approaches to both managing the resources (water, fish, etc.) as well as the various human populations involved in these issues. Flexibility, an understanding that a variety of alternative strategies are possible, and a willingness to adjust previously assumed “rights” will be essential in finding compromises between competing human and ecosystem demands. In addition, the use of adaptive management procedures will be necessary.

that people know what is expected or required and can act in accordance. Thus, for example, investments can be made with the expectation that changes in law will not undo the hoped-for return that motivated the investment. Actions can be taken without fear that a change in the rules will punish the actor. A stable legal system is important economically and socially.

However, this societal interest in stability may conflict with other emerging societal interests in periods of active change. During the 1970s, for example, Congress imposed far-reaching new legal requirements on those whose activities generated certain types of pollution from readily identifiable (point) sources, forcing massive investment in technologically advanced systems for the treatment of particular pollutants prior to their discharge into the environment. The years immediately following enactment of these laws were ones of considerable turmoil and conflict as uncertainties respecting their implementation were disputed and resolved. With these requirements now firmly embedded into the plans and actions of the regulated community, stability has returned. So too has resistance to any significant change in approach, even if such change might better accomplish the objectives of these laws.

Laws governing human uses of water have traditionally been concerned with determining who may make use of the resource and under what conditions. In those states east of the 100th meridian, owners of land adjacent to waterbodies essentially share the ability to use the water (riparian doctrine). Uses must be “reasonable,” with reasonable use generally being measured by the harm that might be caused to other riparian users. In the western states, uses are established through a process of appropriation of water—that is, establishing physical control—and then applying the water to a “beneficial use.” It is a priority system, protecting full use of available water by those first to appropriate it.

The appropriation system arose in the context of water-scarce settings. Direct use of water from streams initially for mining and then for agriculture was essential, and it required the investment of time and money to build the structures that would make that use possible. Users wanted certainty about their rights of use versus other subsequent users, and the prior appropriation system provided that certainty. The appropriation system does not, however, readily accommodate changing uses of water or integrate new uses. Nor does it incorporate the use of water for serving physical and ecological functions within the hydrologic cycle. This suggests that water laws need to be more adaptable if they are to meet changing societal needs. As a first effort, many western states have adopted water transfer laws to accommodate changing water uses, including environmental needs such as instream flows. These states have successfully combined the certainty of the prior appropriation system with the ability to meet emerging demands.

The process of restoring a sustainable level of physical and ecological integrity to our hydrologic systems must work within long-established legal and institutional structures whose purpose has been to promote and support direct human uses. The challenge is to develop societally acceptable approaches that allow

those uses to continue but in a manner that is compatible with ecosystem functionality.

LIMITATIONS TO THE CURRENT WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH ENTERPRISE

The articulation of these four themes—interdisciplinarity, broad systems context, uncertainty, and adaptation—is intended to reorient the disparate research agendas of individual agencies as well as individual researchers. The hope is that an emphasis on these overarching themes will lower barriers to research on newly emerging water resources problems. Research agendas of the federal agencies are driven by their specific mandates, such as the agricultural impacts on water (U.S. Department of Agriculture), water as a component of climate (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), or reservoir management (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation). Often there is a need for agencies to center their missions around clearly articulated, politically prominent issues in order to secure funding. These tendencies promote more narrowly focused research and present barriers to addressing difficult, large-scale problems. Furthermore, agencies are locked into policies devolving from their legislative and administrative history, and they cannot create new policies that cut across administrative or management units; thus, research is constrained by policies that easily become antiquated or irrelevant (Stakhiv, 2003). Finally, water resource problems are frequently conceived to match short-term funding cycles (Parks, 2003), resulting in inadequate knowledge for effective water management.

Similarly, individual scientists frame research in terms of their disciplinary training and work environment, which creates barriers to the kind of research needed to solve the complex problems that are now prominent. Indeed, the reluctance of scientists to reach outside their disciplines has been identified elsewhere as a barrier to effective water resources research (Parks, 2003). Institutional and professional constraints on priority setting also mitigate against effective research because they inhibit creative, innovative, and rapid responses to newly emerging or unanticipated problems.

Water resource problems are commonly assumed to be only local or regional in scope because water management entities and water supply systems operate on these scales. However, some water-related problems have become truly national in scope, either because of their very large spatial scale (e.g., the connection of the upper Mississippi drainage basin with hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico) or because controversies rage over the same water issues in many states throughout the nation. Unfortunately, the current organization of water resources research promotes site- and problem-specific research, which results in narrowly conceived solutions that are often not applicable to large-scale, complex problems or to similar issues in other regions of the country (Stakhiv, 2003). Federal agencies may see only the local character of a problem, without understanding the some-

times subtle ways in which local problems are widely replicated around the country, and may conclude that such problems are not appropriately addressed with federal resources. State representatives advised the committee that they rarely have the financial or scientific resources to address problems that have local manifestations but national significance. Thus, such research can fail to be carried out because of limitations at both the federal and state levels.

Finally, the ability to carry out research on water resources may be limited by the availability of adequate long-term data (as discussed in Chapter 5 ). Hydrologic processes are characterized by the frequency with which events of a given magnitude and duration occur. Infrequent but large-magnitude events (floods, droughts) have very large economic, social, and ecological impact. Without an adequately long record of monitoring data, it is difficult, if not impossible, to understand, model, and predict such events and their effects.

By emphasizing interdisciplinarity, broad systems context, uncertainty, and adaptation as overarching research guidelines, the specific research agendas of agencies and, hopefully, individual scientists can be made more relevant to emerging problems. A framework of research priorities based on these overarching themes is more likely to promote flexible, adaptive, and timely responses to novel or unexpected problems than research programs constrained by priority lists developed solely with respect to agency missions. The complexity and urgency of water resource problems demand a framework that widens the scope of inquiry of researchers and research managers and forces them to conduct research in novel ways.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Although the list of topics in Table 3-1 is our current recommendation concerning the highest priority water resources research areas, this list is expected to change as circumstances and knowledge evolve. Water resource issues change continuously, as new knowledge reveals unforeseen problems, as changes in society generate novel problems, and as changing perceptions by the public reveal issues that were previously unimportant. Periodic reviews and updates to the priority list are needed to ensure that it remains not only current but proactive in directing research toward emerging problems.

An urgent priority for water resources research is the development of a process for regularly reviewing and revising the entire portfolio of research being conducted. Six criteria are recommended for assessing both the scope of the entire water resources research enterprise and also the nature, urgency, and purview of individual research areas. These criteria should ensure that the vast scope of water resources research carried out by the numerous federal and state agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and academic institutions remains focused and effective.

The research agenda should be balanced with respect to time scale, focus, source of problem statement, and source of expertise. Water resources research ranges from long-term and theoretical studies of basic physical, chemical, and biological processes to studies intended to provide rapid solutions to immediate problems. The water resources research enterprise is best served by developing a mechanism for ensuring that there is an appropriate balance among the different types of research, so that both the problems of today and those that will emerge over the next 10–15 years can be effectively addressed.

The context within which research is designed should explicitly reflect the four themes of interdisciplinarity, broad systems context, uncertainty, and adaptation. The current water resources research enterprise is limited by the agency missions, the often narrow disciplinary perspective of scientists, and the lack of a national perspective on perceived local but widely occurring problems. Research patterned after the four themes articulated above could break down these barriers and promise a more fruitful approach to solving the nation’s water resource problems.

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In order to confront the increasingly severe water problems faced by all parts of the country, the United States needs to make a new commitment to research on water resources. A new mechanism is needed to coordinate water research currently fragmented among nearly 20 federal agencies. Given the competition for water among farmers, communities, aquatic ecosystems and other users—as well as emerging challenges such as climate change and the threat of waterborne diseases— Confronting the Nation's Water Problems concludes that an additional $70 million in federal funding should go annually to water research. Funding should go specifically to the areas of water demand and use, water supply augmentation, and other institutional research topics. The book notes that overall federal funding for water research has been stagnant in real terms for the past 30 years and that the portion dedicated to research on water use and social science topics has declined considerably.

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Integrated Water Resources Management in Cities in the World: Global Challenges

• Open access
• Published: 22 March 2023
• Volume 37 , pages 2787–2803, ( 2023 )

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• Chloé Grison   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5842-1524 1 , 2 ,
• Stef Koop   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9906-3746 1 , 2 ,
• Steven Eisenreich   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5920-3764 3 ,
• Jan Hofman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5982-603X 4 ,
• I-Shin Chang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6307-5806 5 ,
• Jing Wu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6911-2041 6 ,
• Dragan Savic   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9567-9041 1 , 7 , 8 &
• Kees van Leeuwen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1605-4268 2  

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Water scarcity and accessibility remain persistently amongst the most prominent global challenges. Although there is a wide agreement among international organizations that Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and water governance are key to overcome water-related challenges, global assessments of the progress made by cities is lacking. This paper for the first time analyses the challenges of water, wastewater, municipal solid waste and climate change in cities. We used empirical studies (125 cities) based on the City Blueprint Approach and developed a statistical estimation model to estimate IWRM performances of another 75 cities. These 200 cities in total represent more than 95% of the global urban population. This comprehensive global picture enables us to evaluate the existing gaps in achieving water-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) and SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities). The best performing cities were Amsterdam and Singapore. Unfortunately, most cities do not yet manage their water resources wisely and are far from achieving the SDGs. For instance, targets regarding drinking water supply are still a challenge for many cities in Africa and Asia and challenges regarding sanitation are high in cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The same holds for solid waste management, climate adaptation, and people living in informal settlements. In another paper we will address the solution pathways to these global challenges.

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1 Introduction

International agreements on the need for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) have led to major policy initiatives in many countries. IWRM is widely acclaimed by international organizations such as the International Water Management Institute, the Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Bank and various regional authorities. IWRM is defined as a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (UNEP 2022 ; United Nations 2022 ). The concept and its application is considered by many as pivotal for achieving the water-related UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; Essex et al. 2020 ; Pahl-Wostl et al. 2021 ). As approximately 70% of the population will be living in urban areas by 2050, with the largest growth taking place in cities in Africa and Asia, the pressure for tackling water challenges has shifted to cities (Romano and Akhmouch 2019 ). Cities have the responsibility for local resources management, land use and urban infrastructures, and therefore can position themselves as arenas for tackling the largest changes (OECD 2015a ; Hachaichi and Egieya 2023 ).

The impact of IWRM in cities can be far-reaching. As urban populations grow, water demands increase, which can substantially exacerbate freshwater scarcity at a regional scale (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2017 ; OECD 2015a ). Cities are, therefore, as vulnerable to water challenges as they are influential in finding management solutions. Due to the pressing nature of climate change, cities are forced to rapidly adapt their IWRM and anticipate long-term climate impact, such as in the case of Cape Town (Madonsela et al. 2019 ), Sabadell (Šteflová et al. 2018 ) and Ahmedebad (Aartsen et al. 2018 ). IWRM has rather universal claims on how water management should be reshaped. This triggers discussions on the ambiguity of IWRM, because it has also been criticized for being too all-encompassing which results in difficulty in providing clear implementations steps (Casiano Flores et al. 2019 ; Gupta et al. 2013 ; Medema et al. 2008 ; Saravanan et al. 2009 ). Hence, as a next step, cities need to identify which elements of their water management and governance already perform well and which ones need to be improved (Koop et al. 2017 ; OECD 2015b ; Pahl-Wostl et al. 2021 ).

Despite ample research on IWRM theory and application in many world regions, there are limited indicator-based studies that provide coherent global perspectives that are specifically focussed on IWRM in cities (Engle et al. 2011 ; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2017 ). Key impediment of such a focus is the availability of a coherent, meaningful and reliable indicators that can lay out urban IWRM challenges and prospects. It is particularly challenging to ensure that data-poor world regions are not under-represented. The City Blueprint Approach (CBA) has been developed and applied to address this gap and the methodology has been published in this journal (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2015a , b ; Koop et al. 2017 ). The approach uses quantitative water management performance assessments. The outcome – a baseline assessment – can initiate a development and implementation cycle for improving IWRM in the cities.

Early 2021, we completed the assessment of 125 cities in 53 countries (See Supplementary Information ). The city’s locations are biased towards Europe and China (Chang et al. 2020 ; Feingold et al. 2018 ; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2015a ; Rahmasary et al. 2019 ). Because a significant amount of quantitative data are required to complete the CBA, urban populations in data-poor regions of sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Central Asia are underrepresented.

The aim of this paper is to provide a coherent outline addressing urban IWRM challenges and prospects across the globe. In order to fulfil this aim, an assessment of the current state of urban water management across the globe is provided. Water management performance is summarized by the Blue City Index (BCI), the geometric mean of the 24 City Blueprint indicators. This will be explained in more detail in the methodology section. To address the gap in city assessments of data-poor regions, a statistical BCI estimation model has been developed which is based on empirical data from 125 cities. Capitals in 75 data-poor countries were selected and their BCIs were estimated. Next, the current water challenges are examined using appropriate SDGs and other relevant indicators. The focus here is mainly on SDG 6 and SDG 11. In this way, a broad diagnosis of urban water challenges across the globe is provided. In another paper we will provide the solution pathways to these global challenges (Koop et al. 2022 ).

2 Methodology

2.1 the city blueprint approach.

The CBA assesses the main social, environmental, financial and governance pressures exerted on cities by the Trends and Pressures Framework (TPF; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021a ). These pressures may identify less favourable conditions for a city’s water management performance. How cities are managing their IWRM is assessed with the City Blueprint Framework (CBF; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021b ). Where cities can improve their water governance is assessed with the Governance Capacity Framework (GCF; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021c ). An example of a complete analysis with the CBA has been published recently for the city of Windhoek (Olivieri et al. 2022 ). In this study we apply only the TPF and the CBF. Each city is assessed using 24 indicators for the TPF (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021a ) and 24 indicators for the CBF (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021b ). Each TPF and CBF indicator is standardised to a scale of zero to ten (see Supplementary Information ). The indicators, the sources of information, and sample calculations are provided in great detail (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021a , b ).

The TPF is a quantitative approach and is composed of 24 descriptive indicators divided over 4 categories (social, environmental, financial, and governance). Indicators are scored on a scale from 0–10, where 0 means no concern and 10 is high concern.

The CBF deals with the adequacy of the city's water management assessing seven main categories: (i) basic water services, (ii) water quality, (iii) wastewater treatment, (iv) water infrastructure, (v) solid waste (vi) climate adaptation and (vii) plans and actions. The IWRM performance is summarized in the BCI, the geometric average of the 24 indicators of the CBF (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021b ). A low BCI implies that there are many improvement options needed, in for example, the city’s wastewater treatment, solid waste treatment and climate adaptation activities. The 24 indicators are visualised in a spider web diagram (Fig.  1 ).

The 24 City Blueprint performance indicators of Singapore. The indicators score from zero to ten

2.2 Update of the Methodology and Database of Cities

CBA data have been gathered for 125 municipalities and regions in 53 countries over a period of about 10 years. In order to consolidate the databases and to remove temporal inconsistencies and to further simplify and harmonize the methodology, a major review and update took place in 2021. Every effort has been undertaken to verify sources and to find the most recent information available. During this process the original CBA applied since 2015, has been modified as well. Details on the consolidation of the database are provided in the Supplementary Information . The update of the database of cities was the first step in the process which is summarized in Fig.  2 .

Schematic illustration of the methods adopted in this study

2.3 Development of a Statistical Estimation Model for the BCI

For the development of the BCI estimation model, a forward stepwise regression analysis approach was adopted using Microsoft Excel to create an expression composed of a limited number of variables representing the indicators. Stepwise regression is a method of fitting regression models in which the choice of predictive variables is carried out to select important variables to obtain a simple and easily interpretable model. Stepwise regression is a process of building a model by successively adding or removing variables based solely on the p values associated with the t statistic of their estimated coefficients. It begins with a model that contains no variables and subsequently adds the most significant variables one after the other (Sokal and Rohlf 1981 ). This methodology was applied three times: using the 24 CBF indicators, using the 24 TPF indicators and using the combined 48 CBF and TPF indicators. The consolidated database of 125 cities was used (see Supplementary Information ). For the BCI estimation model, this process was concluded when three easily accessible variables were identified and the prediction intervals reflected a similar variation as observed in the empirical BCI scores observed in countries in which many cities were assessed, such as the Netherlands, Sweden, the USA and China.

Once the equations for each of these three datasets were determined, the equation that resulted in the smallest 95% prediction interval was selected as the estimation model. To be useful, data for each of the CBA indicators in this equation must be readily available for countries globally. As such, the ease of finding data for each indicator was assessed. It was decided for reasons of transparency and replicability to only include indicators that can be obtained from accessible public databases from international organizations.

2.4 Selection of Cities for Applying the Estimation Model

Before applying the estimation model, a list of cities to be evaluated was selected. As the aim of this paper is to provide BCI scores for cities globally to adequately provide global representation, a list was constructed by first selecting countries lacking CBA assessments. To avoid a bias towards urban populations in countries with a negligible portion of the global urban population, countries with greater than 0.5% of the world population were included, while countries with less than 0.02% of the world population were excluded. Then the capital cities of the remaining countries were selected for evaluation. The final sorting was dependent on data availability. The complete list of cities for which the BCIs were estimated (BCI*) using the estimation model can be found in the Results section and the Supplementary Information .

2.5 Challenges in Cities

The challenges in cities across the globe, were calculated on the basis of the empirical and estimated BCI scores and sorted at continental level, i.e., for Europe, Oceania, Asia, North America, Latin America and Africa.

2.6 Challenges in Countries

The CBA can also provide links to a broader set of IWRM goals and international strategies, such as the United Nations’ SDGs (Essex et al. 2020 ; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2017 ). This is particularly reflected by SDG 6—Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all , and by SDG 11—Make cities and human settlements inclusive safe, resilient and sustainable (UN General Assembly 2017 ). Every indicator in SDG 6 and most indicators in SDG 11 are represented by the CBA, ensuring that city assessments using this method will be representative of SDG targets as well. With a target date of 2030 for these SDG goals, it is vitally important to obtain a global assessment of where cities currently stand in terms of achieving these goals (Essex et al. 2020 ). Unfortunately, these data is not available. As of 2020, only 42% of the 92 SDG environment-related SDG indicators had sufficient data at national level to assess progress in achieving the targets (UNEP 2021a ). Thus, in order to broaden the assessment of the global urban challenges, we used a number of water-related and urban SDG indicators (United Nations 2022 ) for which data were available at national level:

Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all (SDG 6.1).

Access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all (SDG 6.2).

Urban population (not) living in slums, informal settlements or inadequate housing (SDG 11.1).

Urban solid waste regularly collected and with adequate final discharge out of total urban solid waste generated by cities (SDG 11.6.1).

Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (SDG 11.6.2)

We also included one of the World Bank governance indicators, i.e., government effectiveness (Kaufmann et al. 2010 , 2022 ) and climate adaptation (ND-GAIN 2020 ) to provide a broader set of indicators. Data for these indicators had to be available for any country and ideally come from the same source. Data sources were selected based on quality, availability and reliability. As such, large data banks such as World Bank and the UN were prioritized. All data except for government effectiveness and climate adaptation was under a percentage of the population either meeting or not meeting the target. The percentage of the population meeting the target was calculated per country based on its total population.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 the bci estimation model.

We developed a simple BCI estimation model for assessing urban water management performances (BCI*), particularly for cities in data-poor regions. The results of the full statistical analyses including all data used are provided in the Supplementary Information . The resulting equation for estimating BCI scores (denoted as BCI*) is shown in the equation below:

One of the most important results of the statistical analysis is the relevance of the Governance effectiveness parameter of the World Bank in predicting water management performance. Governance effectiveness is the most important variable (Multiple R = 0.71 and R Square = 0.50). It explains most of the variation observed in the empirical BCIs, and confirms the results published earlier based on an analysis of only 45 cities (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2015b ). Although correlations are not cause-effect relations, the results support the view expressed by Romano and Akhmouch ( 2019 ), that if you want to ‘fix the water pipes, start with the institutions’. The second most important variable is secondary wastewater treatment. Poor waste water treatment is observed in many cities and contributes to severe surface water pollution. Water infrastructure, and sewers and wastewater treatment plants in particular, are among the most expensive infrastructures in cities (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2017 ). The logic of this parameter in the estimation model is that only countries with a high gross national income per capita (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021a ) can afford to invest in proper wastewater treatment. Proper collection and treatment of wastewater is also a prerequisite for energy recovery from wastewater, which is the third varable in the BCI estimation model.

The estimation model predicts the BCI* within a range of ± 1.3 (95% prediction interval) from the fully assessed value with a correlation coefficient (R 2 ) of 0.83. The estimated BCI scores using this model versus CBA-assessed BCI scores are shown in Fig.  3 .

Three-variable BCI* estimation model based on CBF and TPF, as provided in Eq. ( 1 ):  BCI* =  4.25—0.396*TPF21 [Government effectiveness]  +  0.195*CBF4 [Secondary WWT]  +  0.111*CBF8 [Energy recovery]. The plot shows the estimated BCI*s against the fully assessed BCIs for the combined 48 CBF and TPF indicators. The solid red line represent a full correspondence of the estimated BCI* and the actual BCI (Y = X; slope = 1). The applicability domain of the estimation model covers the BCI range of 1 to 6.5 as for BCI values > 6.5 a departure from linearity can be observed

3.2 Limitations of the BCI Estimation Model and Its Implications

The 125 cities that were used for the statistical analysis have not been randomly selected. In fact, our work was originally focussed on cities in Europe, that volunteered to participate. Later on cities in other regions were added. Collaboration with scientists in China resulted in the inclusion of all provincial capitals of China to our database (Chang et al. 2020 ). Hence, the cities used for the statistical analysis for the development of the estimation model have a distribution bias towards Europe and China. Of the 125 cities that were assessed, 67 cities are non-European of which 32 cities are Chinese.

The implications of this bias in the selection of cities on the estimation model are not large. The width of the prediction interval is comparable to the variation of BCIs in countries where multiple cities have been assessed such as in China, the USA, the Netherlands and Sweden. For example the lowest BCI in the Netherlands was for the city of Eindhoven (5.8) and the highest BCI value (8.7) was for the city of Amsterdam.

Above BCI values of 6.5, there is a departure from linearity, resulting in lower BCI* values. This implies that the applicability domain of the BCI estimation model covers the range of 1 to 6.5. For our assessments of the BCI* scores for 75 capitals in this study this has no practical consequences as all BCI* values are in the range of 1 to 5.5 (Table 1 ). The full data sets of cities, the statistical analyses and the data are provided in the Supplementary Information .

3.3 Application of the BCI Estimation Model

Successful application of the model requires reliable input data for the three indicators selected in the equation: TPF 21 – Government effectiveness, CBF 4—Secondary wastewater treatment, and CBF 8 – Energy recovery from wastewater. Developing the model meant searching for high quality credible data, readily available for any country and ideally coming from the same source (see Supplementary Information ). The data input was then converted to a score out of 10, in order to reflect BCI scores which range from 0 (low performance) to 10 (high performance). The process for each indicator is described below.

3.3.1 TPF Indicator 21: Government Effectiveness

Government effectiveness is one of the governance indicators rigorously assessed by the World Bank (Kaufmann et al. 2010 ; 2022 ), as established in the guidelines for assessing the TPF indicators (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021a ). The World Bank database provides government effectiveness data for 209 countries (and territories) with the most recent data from 2019. The indicator score of the World Bank varies from -2.5 to 2.5 and has been transformed by a min–max standardization method into scores of 0 to 10 (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2015a ). Finally, the scores are converted into “concern scores”, where a score of 0 means a low concern and a score of 10 indicating a high concern for government effectiveness (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021a ):

3.3.2 CBF Indicator 4: Secondary Wastewater Treatment

This indicator measures the percentage of the urban population whose wastewater is treated by secondary treatment. The original suggested data source for this indicator in the guidelines for assessing CBF scores is from the OECD (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021b ; OECD 2021 ). However, these data are limited to OECD countries, many of which have already been assessed by the CBA. As the goal of the model is to estimate BCI* scores for unassessed regions globally, new data sources are required.

An in-depth review revealed two reliable data sources. A joint UNICEF and WHO report ( 2019 ) provides data for the proportion of wastewater treated to at least secondary treatment for 65 non-CBA assessed countries. The IB-Net database (IBNET 2021 ) also provides data for the percentage of collected sewage that receives at least secondary treatment for 51 non-CBA assessed countries.

Because the data from these two sources are partly overlapping, together they provide data for 85 countries that have not yet been assessed by the CBA. As both sources provide data in percentages, the indicator score could then be transformed for use in the model by using the following equation:

3.3.3 CBF Indicator 8: Energy Recovery

The energy recovery from wastewater systems is expressed as CBF Indicator 8 (Koop and Van Leeuwen 2021b ). Data for the percentage of wastewater treatment plants where energy recovery systems are installed and operational have been found for eight cities (International Water Association 2018 ), of which only three have not yet been assessed by the CBA. For these data, the indicator score could be determined using the following equation:

Aside from this source, adequate data are generally lacking for energy recovery from wastewater systems. Our BCI assessments of cities have revealed that the value of CBF indicator 8 is zero for approximately half of the cities assessed. Published reports support these results, as energy recovery from wastewater treatment is only widely practised in regions with established energy recovery, i.e., Western Europe, North America and Australia (Alvarez and Buchauer 2015 ; Strazzabosco et al. 2021 ). Energy recovery is unlikely in countries that possess little or no secondary or tertiary wastewater treatment (Jones et al. 2021 ; Qadir et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, energy recovery is costly (as are secondary and tertiary treatment), and countries with low GDPs are unlikely to invest in these technologies (Jones et al. 2021 ; Van Puijenbroek et al. 2019 ). Countries with low GDPs and/or no secondary wastewater treatment are likely to have scores of zero for CBF indicator 8.

3.4 A Global Overview of Challenges in 200 Cities

The result of the above analysis is that in addition to the 125 cities already assessed, the BCI* scores for 75 cities were estimated, representing in total 95% of the world population (Table 1 , Fig.  4 and Supplementary Information ).

Global map of estimated BCI* and fully assessed BCI scores for 200 cities. This shows that Latin America, Africa, and parts of Asia generally have BCI scores lower than 4, indicating a great disparity in IWRM. Only Northern Europe shows a distinct cluster of cities scoring higher than 6, whereas Singapore (BCI = 8.1) and Amsterdam (BCI = 8.7) are the only cities with BCI scores > 8

The global map illustrating BCI scores indicates that the majority of cities show ample room too improve IWRM. This is further evidenced when examining the BCI scores per continent (Table 2 ): 145 cities of the 200 assessed have BCI scores lower than 5 and the average score across all continents is 4.1. Even in Europe, with the largest concentration of higher scoring cities, 36% of those assessed scored lower than 5.

3.5 Challenges in Countries

Table 3 provides an overview of the current relative distances to several water-related and urban SDG targets, as well as to other relevant indicators such as government effectiveness and climate adaptation. SDG 6.1 and 6.2 correlate with CBF indicators 1 (access to drinking water) and 2 (access to sanitation), respectively. SDG 11.6.1 corresponds with CBF 15 (Municipal solid waste collected) and SDG 11.6.2 corresponds with TPF 14 (air quality). Finally, TPF 21 (government effectiveness) and CBF 19 (climate adaptation) were included as well to provide broader insights into the challenges.

The results of these assessments reflect the observations at city level as presented in Table 2 and Fig.  4 . Targets regarding drinking water supply have been met in many countries with the exception of some countries in Africa and Asia. Challenges regarding sanitation are still high in countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The same holds for management of solid waste, climate adaptation, the percentage of the urban population living in slums and needs for improving governance effectiveness. Air pollution is a global challenge. Relatively positive scores regarding air pollution are observed for Australia, Canada, Finland, Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, USA and Uruguay. Globally much work remains to meet these targets, especially with regards to urban solid waste management, waste water treatment, air pollution and climate adaptation.

4 Concluding Remarks

This paper aims to provide a coherent outline of IWRM challenges and prospects in cities cross the globe. The 125 empirical assessments and the 75 estimates of the BCI have been used to measure progress on making cities and human settlements inclusive and safe. Additionally, the assessments have been used to determine the current status of the implementation of the greater international water and urban agendas (SDGs 6 and 11). We observe that 145 of the 200 cities assessed or estimated have BCIs below 5, which means that many cities still have to implement advanced wastewater treatment, energy and resource recovery, and climate adaptation measures. Only two cities have BCI scores > 8 (Amsterdam and Singapore). The current state of affairs urges for accelerated improvements: large portions of the global population are far from reaching the SDGs goals, notably related to water, waste and climate change. This further supports the global assessment performed using the CBA, revealing not only relatively low BCI scores in cities around the world, but also significant regional disparities between Europe and Latin America, Africa and parts of Asia. There is a need to focus on the practical implementation of the SDGs for which global availability and accessibility of data is essential (Essex et al. 2020 ).

As populations continue to grow and urbanisation rates increase, cities must accelerate their development beyond their growth rates to achieve IWRM. This requires long-term strategies, continuous monitoring of progress, adaptive capacity and stable and sustainable financing. As water can be linked, directly or indirectly, to nearly all of the SDGs, addressing water challenges could be the gateway to meeting the targets of the other SDGs as well (Essex et al. 2020 ; Makarigakis and Jimenez-Cisneros 2019 ; Van Leeuwen 2020 ).

Meeting the UN SDGs is a political choice. Data gaps are preventing adequate implementation of the SDGs. It is not possible to manage a process if progress cannot be monitored, and monitoring of progress is hindered if adequate data is not available (UNEP 2021a ). To date, funding for SDG 6 targets has been deemed insufficient and the global framework for IWRM shows a poor record of implementation. Unless significant progress is made, it is envisaged that SDG 6 targets will not be met by 2030, which in turn impacts other SDGs (UNEP 2021a ).

Finally, our data indicate that the World Bank indicator government effectiveness is the most important indicator in the developed estimation model (see also Supplementary Information ). It echoes the relevance of IWRM, and in particular the relevance of good water governance as stated by the OECD that if you want to ‘fix the water pipes, start with the institutions’ (Romano and Akhmouch 2019 ). The relevance of effective public–private collaboration for IWRM has been widely acknowledged and plays a major role in cities where most of the challenges of water, waste and climate change reside and solutions for these challenges need to be developed (Beisheim and Campe 2012 ; Koop and Van Leeuwen 2017 ; Rahmasary et al. 2020 ; UNEP 2021b ). The longer it takes to start the actions, the more difficult it will be to overcome challenges of water, wastewater, waste and climate change in cities. In another paper we will discuss the global solutions for IWRM in cities (Koop et al. 2022 ).

Data Availability

The authors declare that all the data supporting the findings of this study are included in its Supplementary Information .

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all master students from Utrecht University, the young professionals from UNESCO, and all volunteers in our urban network for their efforts to participate in the City Blueprint efforts to analyse IWRM in cities. We thank Sharon Clevers (KWR Water Research Institute) for her assistance in the preparation of Fig. 4 . Last but not least we want to thank the management board of KWR who has stimulated this research as part of the global Watershare activities.

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K.v.L., S.K. and D.S. designed the study. C.G created the estimation model and calculated the distance to targets. C.G. drafted the manuscript. I.C and S.W. provided data for the CBF and TPF of cities in China. S.E. suggested improvements for the TPF. D.S., S.E., J.H., S.K. and K.v.L. reviewed the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the manuscript.

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Grison, C., Koop, S., Eisenreich, S. et al. Integrated Water Resources Management in Cities in the World: Global Challenges. Water Resour Manage 37 , 2787–2803 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-023-03475-3

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• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

Thinking about becoming a nurse practitioner? Nurse practitioners have one of the fastest growing careers in the country, and we have all the information you need to know about what to expect from nurse practitioner school .

Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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