essay about social media damages self esteem

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Social media and how it impacts self-esteem.

Social media’s impact on self-esteem is a complex and multifaceted issue. Research has shown that the relationship between social media use and self-esteem can be influenced by various factors, including individual characteristics, the nature of one’s online interactions, and the platforms themselves. While social media can have both positive and negative effects on self-esteem, the overall consensus suggests that it can indeed impact self-esteem.

Firstly, social media can positively impact self-esteem by providing a platform for self-expression and social connection. Engaging with social media can help individuals showcase their achievements, talents, and experiences, leading to increased self-esteem. For instance, receiving likes, comments, or positive feedback on posts can boost self-esteem by providing validation and a sense of belonging (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014). Moreover, social media can offer opportunities for individuals to join communities with shared interests and experiences, potentially enhancing their self-esteem by reducing feelings of social isolation (Perloff, 2014).

On the flip side, social media can negatively impact self-esteem. One common concern is the cultivation of social comparison. People often curate their online presence to highlight their best moments, which can lead to upward social comparison, where individuals compare themselves to others they perceive as more successful or attractive (Tiggemann & Slater, 2014). Such comparisons can lower self-esteem, particularly when individuals feel they fall short in comparison to their peers. Additionally, cyberbullying and online harassment can severely damage self-esteem, as they involve negative interactions and criticism that can harm an individual’s self-worth (Wright et al., 2016).

It is important to note that the impact of social media on self-esteem can vary depending on individual factors. People with pre-existing vulnerabilities, such as low self-esteem or mental health issues, may be more susceptible to the negative effects of social media (Primack et al., 2017). Therefore, it is not a one-size-fits-all scenario. The extent to which social media influences self-esteem will depend on personal characteristics and how individuals navigate and perceive their online experiences.

In conclusion, social media does have an impact on self-esteem, with the potential for both positive and negative effects. It can enhance self-esteem through self-expression and social connection but can also harm self-esteem through social comparison and online harassment. The influence of social media on self-esteem is complex and can vary greatly depending on individual differences and the nature of one’s online interactions. As social media continues to play a significant role in our lives, it is crucial for individuals to be mindful of how they engage with it and to promote positive and supportive online environments.

References:

Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71(11-12), 363-377.

Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Whaite, E. O., Lin, L. Y., Rosen, D., … & Colditz, J. B. (2017). Social media use and perceived social isolation among young adults in the U.S. PLOS ONE, 12(8), e0182145.

Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2014). NetGirls: The Internet, Facebook, and body image concern in adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47(6), 630- 641.

Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(4), 206-222.

Wright, M. F., Wachs, S., Morrison, K. L., et al. (2016). Adolescents’ experiences of and responses to online and face-to-face bullying: An examination of psychosocial and physical health outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(3), 305-311.

This entry was posted on Thursday, October 19th, 2023 at 10:14 pm and is filed under Uncategorized . You can follow any comments to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a comment , or trackback from your own site.

Another issue that makes social media a negative for some is algorithms. Algorithms are Artificial intelligent systems put in place by site programmers to curate an experience tailored specifically for each user. An algorithm does not just affect the ads, but all the content you see, as well as who you interact with, and which people the site will recommend to you. If you aren’t actively aware of this algorithm you will surely fall into it like quicksand.

I bring this up because some people, in this case teens, will be pressured to post the best of their lives as they want to fit in. Due to Normative social influence, ~43% of teens will feel pressured to post the best of themselves, while ~37% will post something that will at least garner them likes and comments (Hoffman, 2021). Which other teens, adults, or people on the internet in general, will be influenced by. Another issue is how much people they aren’t affected by the content they see, due to their perceived behavioral control, might not take the required steps to avoid social medias pit falls (Gruman et al., 2017).

References: Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. Hoffman, S. (2021, June 22). The impact of social media on self-esteem and how to help. Hwb. https://hwb.gov.wales/keeping-safe-online/views-from-the-experts/the-impact-of-social-media-on-self-esteem-and-how-to-help/

The impact of social networks on the individual can be measured in different areas. There are many in favor of their implementation with greater veracity of verification and others argue for the right to free expression that they should simply leave as they are. Also, some consider that without a reasonable criterion of information discrimination, social networks can be devastating for someone who does not carefully filter the content they consume, “First of all, social networks can have a positive impact on self-esteem by providing a platform for self-expression and social connection. Interaction with social networks can help people show their achievements, talents, and experiences, which leads to greater self-esteem.” At this point, I agree with you that a favorable aspect that we can take advantage of from social networks is the contribution of self-esteem and personal care, but we have also found the deviation in the esteem where vanity and edginess are what end up playing a prevalent role in those who consume this type of content. We can highlight that what is verifiable is the capacity of social networks to link and weave new never-before-thought relationships between individuals. This is not a simple matter of opinion, it is the gigantic capacity that social networks have to break boundaries, which in the beginning was their first objective and which I consider the greatest of its benefits. Social media can offer opportunities for individuals to join communities with shared interests and experiences, potentially enhancing their self-esteem by reducing feelings of social isolation (Perloff, 2014).

Reference Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71(11-12), 363-377.

Social media can have a profound effect on kids self-esteem, and their mental health. Social media might have some benefits for adults in improving their self-esteem, and giving them a platform to showcase different facets of their personality, but it can be detrimental to the self-esteem of kids. Use of social media have been linked to anxiety and depression in kids and adolescents. Unfortunately because of Covid 19 pandemic, more and more younger kids have started using different social media platforms with sometimes disastrous consequences. Kids were already under pressure from other sources of media impacting them with unrealistic body image, and expectations, but it was still controllable by parental supervision, but now with every child in possession of a smart phone, it is harder for parents to supervise what their kids are consuming on the daily basis. Social media has resulted in online bullying, excessive social pressures because of comparing themselves to what they see on social media, and addiction like behaviors. (Martin, 2019) All of these can give kids anxiety which might result in depression and suicide. Although there might be some benefits of social media use in kids, like making new friends and showcasing their skills, in the long term these benefits outweigh the risks greatly.

Martin, G.N. (2019) (why) do you like scary movies? A review of the empirical research on psychological responses to Horror films, Frontiers in psychology. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6813198/ (Accessed: 18 October 2023).

Social media is driving teen mental health crisis, Surgeon General warns (2023) NBCNews.com. Available at: https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/social-media-mental-health-anxiety-depression-teens-surgeon-general-rcna85575 (Accessed: 22 October 2023).

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How social media can crush your self-esteem

essay about social media damages self esteem

Candidate au doctorat en psychologie, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)

Disclosure statement

Sabrina Laplante does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation CA-FR.

Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) provides funding as a member of The Conversation CA.

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We all have a natural tendency to compare ourselves to others, whether intentionally or not, online or offline. Such comparisons help us evaluate our own achievements , skills, personality and our emotions. This, in turn, influences how we see ourselves.

But what impact do these comparisons have on our well-being? It depends on how much comparing we do.

Comparing ourselves on social media to people who are worse off than we are makes us feel better . Comparing ourselves to people who are doing better than us, however, makes us feel inferior or inadequate instead . The social media platform we choose also affects our morale, as do crisis situations like the COVID-19 pandemic.

As a PhD student in psychology, I am studying incels — men who perceive the rejection of women as the cause of their involuntary celibacy. I believe that social comparison, which plays as much a role in these marginal groups as it does in the general population, affects our general well-being in the age of social media.

An optimal level of comparison

The degree of social comparison that individuals carry out is thought to affect the degree of motivation they have. According to a study by researchers at Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany, there is an optimal level of perceived difference between the self and others that maximizes the effects of social comparison.

A woman sitting on a sofa, holding a cell phone in one hand and holding her head in distress with the other.

Specifically, if we see ourselves as vastly superior to others, we will not be motivated to improve because we already feel that we are in a good position. Yet, if we perceive ourselves as very inferior, we will not be motivated to improve since the goal seems too difficult to achieve.

In other words, the researchers note, beyond or below the optimal level of perceived difference between oneself and another, a person no longer makes any effort. By perceiving oneself as inferior, the individual will experience negative emotions, guilt and lowered pride and self-esteem.

Unrealistic comparisons on social media

Social comparisons therefore have consequences both for our behaviour and for our psychological well-being. However, comparing yourself to others at a restaurant dinner does not necessarily have the same effect as comparing yourself to others on Facebook. It is easier to invent an exciting existence or embellish certain aspects of things on a social media platform than it is in real life .

The advent of social media, which allows us to share content where we always appear in our best light, has led many researchers to consider the possibility that this amplifies unrealistic comparisons.

Research shows that the more time people spend on Facebook and Instagram, the more they compare themselves socially. This social comparison is linked, among other things, to lower self-esteem and higher social anxiety.

A cartoon of a smiling woman on a social media post, but unhappy in real life.

A study conducted by researchers at the National University of Singapore explains these results by the fact that people generally present positive information about themselves on social media. They can also enhance their appearance by using filters, which create the impression that there is a big difference between themselves and others.

In turn, researchers working at Facebook observed that the more people looked at content where people were sharing positive aspects of their lives on the platform, the more likely they were to compare themselves to others .

COVID-19: Less negative social comparison

However, could the effect of this comparison in a particularly stressful context like the COVID-19 pandemic be different?

A study from researchers at Kore University in Enna, Italy, showed that before lockdowns, high levels of online social comparison were associated with greater distress, loneliness and a less satisfying life. But this was no longer the case during lockdowns .

One reason for this would be that by comparing themselves to others during the lockdown, people felt they were sharing the same difficult experience. That reduced the negative impact of social comparisons. So, comparing oneself to others online during difficult times can be a positive force for improving relationships and sharing feelings of fear and uncertainty.

Four female friends greeting each other on an online video call.

A different effect depending on the social media

There are distinctions to be made depending on which social media platform a person is using. Researchers at the University of Lorraine, France, consider that social media platforms should not be all lumped together .

For example, the use of Facebook and Instagram is associated with lower well-being, while Twitter is associated with more positive emotions and higher life satisfaction. One possible explanation: Facebook and Instagram are known to be places for positive self-presentation, unlike Twitter, where it is more appropriate to share one’s real opinions and emotions.

Trying to get social support on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic may reactivate negative emotions instead of releasing them, depending on which social media platform a person is using.

Many things motivate us to compare ourselves socially. Whether we like it or not, social media exposes us to more of those motivations. Depending on the type of content that is being shared, whether it is positive or negative, we tend to refer to it when we are self-evaluating. Sharing content that makes us feel good about ourselves and garners praise from others is nice, but you have to consider the effect of these posts on others.

Yet overall, I believe that sharing your difficulties in words, pictures or videos can still have positive effects and bring psychological benefits.

This article was originally published in French

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Science News

Social media harms teens’ mental health, mounting evidence shows. what now.

Understanding what is going on in teens’ minds is necessary for targeted policy suggestions

A teen scrolls through social media alone on her phone.

Most teens use social media, often for hours on end. Some social scientists are confident that such use is harming their mental health. Now they want to pinpoint what explains the link.

Carol Yepes/Getty Images

Increasing rigor

Concerns over the effects of social media use in children have been circulating for years, resulting in a massive body of scientific literature. But those mostly correlational studies could not show if teen social media use was harming mental health or if teens with mental health problems were using more social media.

Moreover, the findings from such studies were often inconclusive, or the effects on mental health so small as to be inconsequential. In one study that received considerable media attention, psychologists Amy Orben and Andrew Przybylski combined data from three surveys to see if they could find a link between technology use, including social media, and reduced well-being. The duo gauged the well-being of over 355,000 teenagers by focusing on questions around depression, suicidal thinking and self-esteem.

Digital technology use was associated with a slight decrease in adolescent well-being , Orben, now of the University of Cambridge, and Przybylski, of the University of Oxford, reported in 2019 in Nature Human Behaviour . But the duo downplayed that finding, noting that researchers have observed similar drops in adolescent well-being associated with drinking milk, going to the movies or eating potatoes.

Holes have begun to appear in that narrative thanks to newer, more rigorous studies.

In one longitudinal study, researchers — including Orben and Przybylski — used survey data on social media use and well-being from over 17,400 teens and young adults to look at how individuals’ responses to a question gauging life satisfaction changed between 2011 and 2018. And they dug into how the responses varied by gender, age and time spent on social media.

Social media use was associated with a drop in well-being among teens during certain developmental periods, chiefly puberty and young adulthood, the team reported in 2022 in Nature Communications . That translated to lower well-being scores around ages 11 to 13 for girls and ages 14 to 15 for boys. Both groups also reported a drop in well-being around age 19. Moreover, among the older teens, the team found evidence for the Goldilocks Hypothesis: the idea that both too much and too little time spent on social media can harm mental health.

“There’s hardly any effect if you look over everybody. But if you look at specific age groups, at particularly what [Orben] calls ‘windows of sensitivity’ … you see these clear effects,” says L.J. Shrum, a consumer psychologist at HEC Paris who was not involved with this research. His review of studies related to teen social media use and mental health is forthcoming in the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research.

Cause and effect

That longitudinal study hints at causation, researchers say. But one of the clearest ways to pin down cause and effect is through natural or quasi-experiments. For these in-the-wild experiments, researchers must identify situations where the rollout of a societal “treatment” is staggered across space and time. They can then compare outcomes among members of the group who received the treatment to those still in the queue — the control group.

That was the approach Makarin and his team used in their study of Facebook. The researchers homed in on the staggered rollout of Facebook across 775 college campuses from 2004 to 2006. They combined that rollout data with student responses to the National College Health Assessment, a widely used survey of college students’ mental and physical health.

The team then sought to understand if those survey questions captured diagnosable mental health problems. Specifically, they had roughly 500 undergraduate students respond to questions both in the National College Health Assessment and in validated screening tools for depression and anxiety. They found that mental health scores on the assessment predicted scores on the screenings. That suggested that a drop in well-being on the college survey was a good proxy for a corresponding increase in diagnosable mental health disorders.

Compared with campuses that had not yet gained access to Facebook, college campuses with Facebook experienced a 2 percentage point increase in the number of students who met the diagnostic criteria for anxiety or depression, the team found.

When it comes to showing a causal link between social media use in teens and worse mental health, “that study really is the crown jewel right now,” says Cunningham, who was not involved in that research.

A need for nuance

The social media landscape today is vastly different than the landscape of 20 years ago. Facebook is now optimized for maximum addiction, Shrum says, and other newer platforms, such as Snapchat, Instagram and TikTok, have since copied and built on those features. Paired with the ubiquity of social media in general, the negative effects on mental health may well be larger now.

Moreover, social media research tends to focus on young adults — an easier cohort to study than minors. That needs to change, Cunningham says. “Most of us are worried about our high school kids and younger.”

And so, researchers must pivot accordingly. Crucially, simple comparisons of social media users and nonusers no longer make sense. As Orben and Przybylski’s 2022 work suggested, a teen not on social media might well feel worse than one who briefly logs on.

Researchers must also dig into why, and under what circumstances, social media use can harm mental health, Cunningham says. Explanations for this link abound. For instance, social media is thought to crowd out other activities or increase people’s likelihood of comparing themselves unfavorably with others. But big data studies, with their reliance on existing surveys and statistical analyses, cannot address those deeper questions. “These kinds of papers, there’s nothing you can really ask … to find these plausible mechanisms,” Cunningham says.

One ongoing effort to understand social media use from this more nuanced vantage point is the SMART Schools project out of the University of Birmingham in England. Pedagogical expert Victoria Goodyear and her team are comparing mental and physical health outcomes among children who attend schools that have restricted cell phone use to those attending schools without such a policy. The researchers described the protocol of that study of 30 schools and over 1,000 students in the July BMJ Open.

Goodyear and colleagues are also combining that natural experiment with qualitative research. They met with 36 five-person focus groups each consisting of all students, all parents or all educators at six of those schools. The team hopes to learn how students use their phones during the day, how usage practices make students feel, and what the various parties think of restrictions on cell phone use during the school day.

Talking to teens and those in their orbit is the best way to get at the mechanisms by which social media influences well-being — for better or worse, Goodyear says. Moving beyond big data to this more personal approach, however, takes considerable time and effort. “Social media has increased in pace and momentum very, very quickly,” she says. “And research takes a long time to catch up with that process.”

Until that catch-up occurs, though, researchers cannot dole out much advice. “What guidance could we provide to young people, parents and schools to help maintain the positives of social media use?” Goodyear asks. “There’s not concrete evidence yet.”

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International Conference on Information

iConference 2023: Information for a Better World: Normality, Virtuality, Physicality, Inclusivity pp 109–122 Cite as

Impact of Social Media on Self-esteem and Emotions: An Instagram-Based Case Study

Sara Martínez-Cardama ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7035-5884 14 &
Elena Gómez-López 15
Conference paper
First Online: 10 March 2023

1461 Accesses

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNCS,volume 13972))

Social networks currently serve not only as platforms for publishing content but also as fundamental tools for accessing information. This role in providing access is mediated by a series of opaque, algorithm-based mechanisms for personalising the content. This article draws on existing literature on the relationship between possible mental health disorders and the functioning of these platforms to try to understand their effects on elements such as self-esteem and emotions. To this end, it focuses on the Instagram social network, which is prominent in the user groups corresponding to the Millennial and Z generations due to its high visual and multimedia content, its capacity for uncovering trends, and its integration with social commerce. It presents the results of a study (n = 100) of Instagram users between the ages of 18 and 39. These results provide relevant data on patterns associated with the following: time spent on the platform and excessive use, the risk of emotional loneliness or isolation, displacement of daily activities, and feelings of inferiority. They also reveal a real lack of awareness of how the algorithms on these types of platforms work and an interest in the mechanisms of disconnection and digital well-being. Lastly, the results open up new possibilities for inclusion of these risks in digital literacy programmes.

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This work has been supported by the Madrid Government (Comunidad de Madrid-Spain) under the Multiannual Agreement with UC3M in the line of Excellence of University Professors (EPUC3M02), and in the context of the V PRICIT (Regional Programme of Research and Technological Innovation).

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Martínez-Cardama, S., Gómez-López, E. (2023). Impact of Social Media on Self-esteem and Emotions: An Instagram-Based Case Study. In: Sserwanga, I., et al. Information for a Better World: Normality, Virtuality, Physicality, Inclusivity. iConference 2023. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 13972. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28032-0_9

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v.12(6); 2020 Jun

Social Media Use and Its Connection to Mental Health: A Systematic Review

Fazida karim.

1 Psychology, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

2 Business & Management, University Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, MYS

Azeezat A Oyewande

3 Family Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

4 Family Medicine, Lagos State Health Service Commission/Alimosho General Hospital, Lagos, NGA

Lamis F Abdalla

5 Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

Reem Chaudhry Ehsanullah

Safeera khan.

Social media are responsible for aggravating mental health problems. This systematic study summarizes the effects of social network usage on mental health. Fifty papers were shortlisted from google scholar databases, and after the application of various inclusion and exclusion criteria, 16 papers were chosen and all papers were evaluated for quality. Eight papers were cross-sectional studies, three were longitudinal studies, two were qualitative studies, and others were systematic reviews. Findings were classified into two outcomes of mental health: anxiety and depression. Social media activity such as time spent to have a positive effect on the mental health domain. However, due to the cross-sectional design and methodological limitations of sampling, there are considerable differences. The structure of social media influences on mental health needs to be further analyzed through qualitative research and vertical cohort studies.

Introduction and background

Human beings are social creatures that require the companionship of others to make progress in life. Thus, being socially connected with other people can relieve stress, anxiety, and sadness, but lack of social connection can pose serious risks to mental health [ 1 ].

Social media

Social media has recently become part of people's daily activities; many of them spend hours each day on Messenger, Instagram, Facebook, and other popular social media. Thus, many researchers and scholars study the impact of social media and applications on various aspects of people’s lives [ 2 ]. Moreover, the number of social media users worldwide in 2019 is 3.484 billion, up 9% year-on-year [ 3 - 5 ]. A statistic in Figure 1 shows the gender distribution of social media audiences worldwide as of January 2020, sorted by platform. It was found that only 38% of Twitter users were male but 61% were using Snapchat. In contrast, females were more likely to use LinkedIn and Facebook. There is no denying that social media has now become an important part of many people's lives. Social media has many positive and enjoyable benefits, but it can also lead to mental health problems. Previous research found that age did not have an effect but gender did; females were much more likely to experience mental health than males [ 6 , 7 ].

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Object name is cureus-0012-00000008627-i01.jpg

Impact on mental health

Mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which people understand their abilities, solve everyday life problems, work well, and make a significant contribution to the lives of their communities [ 8 ]. There is debated presently going on regarding the benefits and negative impacts of social media on mental health [ 9 , 10 ]. Social networking is a crucial element in protecting our mental health. Both the quantity and quality of social relationships affect mental health, health behavior, physical health, and mortality risk [ 9 ]. The Displaced Behavior Theory may help explain why social media shows a connection with mental health. According to the theory, people who spend more time in sedentary behaviors such as social media use have less time for face-to-face social interaction, both of which have been proven to be protective against mental disorders [ 11 , 12 ]. On the other hand, social theories found how social media use affects mental health by influencing how people view, maintain, and interact with their social network [ 13 ]. A number of studies have been conducted on the impacts of social media, and it has been indicated that the prolonged use of social media platforms such as Facebook may be related to negative signs and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress [ 10 - 15 ]. Furthermore, social media can create a lot of pressure to create the stereotype that others want to see and also being as popular as others.

The need for a systematic review

Systematic studies can quantitatively and qualitatively identify, aggregate, and evaluate all accessible data to generate a warm and accurate response to the research questions involved [ 4 ]. In addition, many existing systematic studies related to mental health studies have been conducted worldwide. However, only a limited number of studies are integrated with social media and conducted in the context of social science because the available literature heavily focused on medical science [ 6 ]. Because social media is a relatively new phenomenon, the potential links between their use and mental health have not been widely investigated.

This paper attempt to systematically review all the relevant literature with the aim of filling the gap by examining social media impact on mental health, which is sedentary behavior, which, if in excess, raises the risk of health problems [ 7 , 9 , 12 ]. This study is important because it provides information on the extent of the focus of peer review literature, which can assist the researchers in delivering a prospect with the aim of understanding the future attention related to climate change strategies that require scholarly attention. This study is very useful because it provides information on the extent to which peer review literature can assist researchers in presenting prospects with a view to understanding future concerns related to mental health strategies that require scientific attention. The development of the current systematic review is based on the main research question: how does social media affect mental health?

Research strategy

The research was conducted to identify studies analyzing the role of social media on mental health. Google Scholar was used as our main database to find the relevant articles. Keywords that were used for the search were: (1) “social media”, (2) “mental health”, (3) “social media” AND “mental health”, (4) “social networking” AND “mental health”, and (5) “social networking” OR “social media” AND “mental health” (Table 1 ).

Out of the results in Table 1 , a total of 50 articles relevant to the research question were selected. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, duplicate papers were removed, and, finally, a total of 28 articles were selected for review (Figure 2 ).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is cureus-0012-00000008627-i02.jpg

PRISMA, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Peer-reviewed, full-text research papers from the past five years were included in the review. All selected articles were in English language and any non-peer-reviewed and duplicate papers were excluded from finally selected articles.

Of the 16 selected research papers, there were a research focus on adults, gender, and preadolescents [ 10 - 19 ]. In the design, there were qualitative and quantitative studies [ 15 , 16 ]. There were three systematic reviews and one thematic analysis that explored the better or worse of using social media among adolescents [ 20 - 23 ]. In addition, eight were cross-sectional studies and only three were longitudinal studies [ 24 - 29 ].The meta-analyses included studies published beyond the last five years in this population. Table 2 presents a selection of studies from the review.

IGU, internet gaming disorder; PSMU, problematic social media use

This study has attempted to systematically analyze the existing literature on the effect of social media use on mental health. Although the results of the study were not completely consistent, this review found a general association between social media use and mental health issues. Although there is positive evidence for a link between social media and mental health, the opposite has been reported.

For example, a previous study found no relationship between the amount of time spent on social media and depression or between social media-related activities, such as the number of online friends and the number of “selfies”, and depression [ 29 ]. Similarly, Neira and Barber found that while higher investment in social media (e.g. active social media use) predicted adolescents’ depressive symptoms, no relationship was found between the frequency of social media use and depressed mood [ 28 ].

In the 16 studies, anxiety and depression were the most commonly measured outcome. The prominent risk factors for anxiety and depression emerging from this study comprised time spent, activity, and addiction to social media. In today's world, anxiety is one of the basic mental health problems. People liked and commented on their uploaded photos and videos. In today's age, everyone is immune to the social media context. Some teens experience anxiety from social media related to fear of loss, which causes teens to try to respond and check all their friends' messages and messages on a regular basis.

On the contrary, depression is one of the unintended significances of unnecessary use of social media. In detail, depression is limited not only to Facebooks but also to other social networking sites, which causes psychological problems. A new study found that individuals who are involved in social media, games, texts, mobile phones, etc. are more likely to experience depression.

The previous study found a 70% increase in self-reported depressive symptoms among the group using social media. The other social media influence that causes depression is sexual fun [ 12 ]. The intimacy fun happens when social media promotes putting on a facade that highlights the fun and excitement but does not tell us much about where we are struggling in our daily lives at a deeper level [ 28 ]. Another study revealed that depression and time spent on Facebook by adolescents are positively correlated [ 22 ]. More importantly, symptoms of major depression have been found among the individuals who spent most of their time in online activities and performing image management on social networking sites [ 14 ].

Another study assessed gender differences in associations between social media use and mental health. Females were found to be more addicted to social media as compared with males [ 26 ]. Passive activity in social media use such as reading posts is more strongly associated with depression than doing active use like making posts [ 23 ]. Other important findings of this review suggest that other factors such as interpersonal trust and family functioning may have a greater influence on the symptoms of depression than the frequency of social media use [ 28 , 29 ].

Limitation and suggestion

The limitations and suggestions were identified by the evidence involved in the study and review process. Previously, 7 of the 16 studies were cross-sectional and slightly failed to determine the causal relationship between the variables of interest. Given the evidence from cross-sectional studies, it is not possible to conclude that the use of social networks causes mental health problems. Only three longitudinal studies examined the causal relationship between social media and mental health, which is hard to examine if the mental health problem appeared more pronounced in those who use social media more compared with those who use it less or do not use at all [ 19 , 20 , 24 ]. Next, despite the fact that the proposed relationship between social media and mental health is complex, a few studies investigated mediating factors that may contribute or exacerbate this relationship. Further investigations are required to clarify the underlying factors that help examine why social media has a negative impact on some peoples’ mental health, whereas it has no or positive effect on others’ mental health.

Conclusions

Social media is a new study that is rapidly growing and gaining popularity. Thus, there are many unexplored and unexpected constructive answers associated with it. Lately, studies have found that using social media platforms can have a detrimental effect on the psychological health of its users. However, the extent to which the use of social media impacts the public is yet to be determined. This systematic review has found that social media envy can affect the level of anxiety and depression in individuals. In addition, other potential causes of anxiety and depression have been identified, which require further exploration.

The importance of such findings is to facilitate further research on social media and mental health. In addition, the information obtained from this study can be helpful not only to medical professionals but also to social science research. The findings of this study suggest that potential causal factors from social media can be considered when cooperating with patients who have been diagnosed with anxiety or depression. Also, if the results from this study were used to explore more relationships with another construct, this could potentially enhance the findings to reduce anxiety and depression rates and prevent suicide rates from occurring.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The impacts of social media on youth self-image

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In the age of smartphones and constant connectivity, social media has become an integral part of the lives of today's youth. While social media platforms provide various benefits, they also wield a profound influence on youth self-image. Clinical therapists Samantha Gonzalez AMFT, APCC, and Alyssa Acosta, APCC, lead the Adolescent Partial Hospital Program at Loma Linda University Behavioral Health. Together, they break down the impact of social media on the self-perception and mental well-being of young individuals, shedding light on the challenges they face in maintaining a healthy self-image in a digital age.

The Illusion of Perfection

One of the primary ways social media affects youth self-image is through the propagation of an idealized and often unattainable standard of beauty.

"Social media platforms are flooded with meticulously curated profiles, showcasing seemingly perfect lives, flawless appearances, and ideal bodies,” Acosta says. “This constant exposure to images of seemingly perfect individuals can lead young people to develop unrealistic expectations about their own appearance and life achievements.”

She says comparing oneself to these distorted representations can lead to feelings of inadequacy, lowered self-esteem, and even body dysmorphia.

Seeking Validation and Social Approval

The proliferation of social media has also fueled the need for validation and social approval among young people. The number of likes, comments, and followers has become a measure of self-worth, amplifying the pressure to present an idealized version of oneself online. Acosta says the desire for external validation can lead to the adoption of unhealthy behaviors such as excessive self-promotion, seeking attention through provocative images or posts, and even resorting to online bullying or negative comparisons to others.

Cyberbullying and Negative Feedback Loops

Reports show 16% of high school students experienced cyberbullying. Social media platforms can provide grounds for cyberbullying and negative feedback loops, which can have devastating consequences for youth self-image, according to Gonzalez Unlike face-to-face interactions, online platforms enable anonymity and distance, emboldening individuals to engage in hurtful behavior. Gonzalez says negative comments, cyberbullying, and online harassment can have a profound impact on a young person's self-esteem, leading to feelings of worthlessness, depression, and anxiety. The constant exposure to such negativity can create a toxic cycle, further exacerbating their mental well-being.

Comparison and Fear of Missing Out

Youth today are bombarded with constant updates on the lives of their peers through social media. The fear of missing out can intensify when scrolling through posts about parties, travel, achievements, or milestones.

“This incessant comparison can foster a sense of dissatisfaction with one's own life and accomplishments, leading to a negative self-perception,” Acosta says. “The curated nature of social media feeds often fails to represent the full spectrum of experiences and emotions, reinforcing an unrealistic sense of what a ‘successful’ or ‘fulfilled’ life should look like.”

Nurturing a Healthy Self-Image

While social media can have detrimental effects on youth self-image, it is important to remember that it is not inherently negative. Gonzalez and Acosta say there are ways to mitigate the negative impacts and promote a healthier self-perception among young individuals:

Media literacy: Educating youth about the influence of social media and promoting critical thinking skills can help them discern between reality and the illusion of perfection.
Setting boundaries: Encouraging young people to set limits on their social media usage and prioritize offline activities can foster a healthier balance.
Positive reinforcement: Recognizing and celebrating achievements, talents, and qualities beyond social media metrics can reinforce a sense of self-worth based on internal validation.
Promoting open communication: Creating a safe space where young people feel comfortable discussing their concerns about self-image and social media can provide valuable support.
Diverse representation: Encouraging the promotion and celebration of diverse body types, ethnicities, abilities, and accomplishments on social media can challenge narrow beauty standards and inspire a more inclusive self-image.

May is Mental Health Month. Loma Linda University Behavioral Health leads the region in mental health treatment offering the full spectrum of behavioral health programs and services to fit your needs in Redlands, Murrieta, and Rancho Cucamonga. Click here to request more information about the mental health programs offered.

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New Analysis: Social Media Use Is Harmful to Self-Esteem

A review of 120-plus studies suggests social media causes more harm than good..

Posted November 30, 2019 | Reviewed by Gary Drevitch

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There has been a vigorous debate about whether social media use is psychologically harmful. Some studies find it to be relatively innocuous. Others suggest it can be severely damaging. Still others argue that it depends on the way people use the platforms.

New research in the journal Personality and Individual Differences adds some much-needed perspective to this ongoing debate. Specifically, a team of researchers led by Alyssa Saiphoo of Ryerson University in Toronto analyzed the cumulative results of 121 studies to see if they could come to a consensus regarding the relationship between social media use and self-esteem .

Their results suggest that social media use likely causes more harm than good.

"The popularity of social networking sites has prompted researchers to investigate the relationship between social networking site use and various psychological variables, one being self-esteem," state Saiphoo and her team. "There is a large literature, theoretical and empirical, supporting a relationship between these two variables; however, the conclusions are mixed. [...] Overall, we found a small, significant, negative relationship between social network site use and self-esteem, suggesting that higher levels of social network site use are associated with lower levels of self-esteem."

To arrive at this conclusion, Saiphoo and her team gathered the studies published on social media use and self-esteem over the past two decades. This amounted to 121 studies and 91,462 participant observations. The researchers then computed the average correlation between self-esteem and social media use across all 121 studies. They found this value to be negative ( r = -0.08), meaning that higher social media use was associated with lower self-esteem.

The researchers speculate that this has to do with a few different factors. First, they suggest that people who use social networking sites might be doing so at the expense of their in-person relationships. In other words, people are trading strong and supportive real-life relationships for more tenuous virtual relationships. The researchers also suggest that people with lower self-esteem may be drawn to social media use to avoid uncomfortable and awkward real-life experiences. They write:

"Individuals with lower self-esteem may develop more online relationships because they tend to be more sensitive to interpersonal relations and more dependent on others for approval. This may be related to feelings of awkwardness in face-to-face social situations, and thus, communicating online via social networking sites might be an effective way of socializing for them."

Further, people with low self-esteem may be more likely to use social media sites in problematic ways—for instance, overusing social media sites or engaging in negative social comparisons.

A few other interesting findings emerged: Of the four regions measured (Asia, Australia, North America, and Europe), the researchers found the negative relationship between social media use and self-esteem to be strongest in Australia and weakest in North America. They also found that people who used multiple social networks were worse off than people who used only Facebook. And, not surprisingly, people who exhibited problematic social media use exhibited the lowest self-esteem of all the groups measured.

The researchers don't expect the story to end here. In fact, they believe there are benefits to using social networking sites that haven't yet been adequately addressed. They write, "While our effect size was significant and consistent with existing theories on social networking site use and self-esteem, the obtained effect was still small, suggesting that this relationship is not a particularly strong one. Because of this, it's important to consider the alternative hypothesis—that increased use of social networking sites might be associated with higher self-esteem. [...] These results highlight a need for further, more nuanced investigations of social networking site use, particularly, of positive social networking site use."

Saiphoo, A. N., Halevi, L. D., & Vahedi, Z. (2020). Social networking site use and self-esteem: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences, 153, 109639.

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Social Media and Self-Esteem

The creation of social media sites and applications has changed the ways in which people interact, connect, and share with one another. Perhaps children and adolescents are the most affected by these technological advancements. Teens and pre-teens are among the highest consumers of social media. As the number of social media sites and apps increases, children and adolescents increase their usage (Anderson, 2018). So, questions arise regarding social media usage such as can too much time spent on social media impact the way children see themselves? Can social media usage affect a youth’s self-esteem?

Social media can be positive and negative. It’s positive for children to use social media as this platform allows them to share interests or posts about their favorite sports, celebrities, artists, and talents with a diverse group of like-minded individuals. However, social media can be negative if children are using social media as a measure of their likability or popularity (Koutamanis, 2015). Parents need to remember that even though technologies are quickly changing, the developmental needs of children remain the same (Orth, 2018).

Research has demonstrated an individual’s ability to verbalize a sense of his or her overall worth as a person emerges around the age of 8, which suggests that this time period is very crucial in the development of self-esteem (Orth, 2018). During this stage, children begin to discover their abilities and characteristics and begin their evolution into being known by and identifying with what they have discovered about themselves. Children in mid to late childhood (i.e., ages 8 to 10 years old) are able to understand that success in domains of personal importance promotes high self-esteem, whereas failure in these domains undermines their sense of competence and takes a toll on self-esteem (Orth, 2018).

As children emerge into late childhood and early adolescence, parental approval continues to affect self-esteem, but it is not as influential as peer approval (Erol, 2011).

During adolescence (i.e., ages 11-19 years old), youth are undergoing the process of identity development, and self-esteem is an important part of this development. During this developmental period, adolescents’ self-esteem is likely to be affected by the feedback they receive online through social media sites (Burrows, 2017). Teens describe social media platforms as a key tool for connecting and maintaining relationships, being creative, and learning more about other cultures and diverse peoples. Clearly, in these ways, social media usage can be a positive experience; however, youth are also exposed to the negative aspects of social media use, such as drama and bullying or feeling pressure to present themselves in a certain way (Anderson, 2018). Furthermore, adolescents tend to over interpret or misjudge the extent to which others are evaluating them, which can lead to a preoccupation with how they look in the eyes of others (Valkenburg, 2016). Positive feedback received online has been shown to enhance self-esteem, and negative feedback has been shown to have the reverse effect (Valkenburg, 2017).

Positive impacts on self-esteem can occur through interactions via social media if adolescents feel a sense of connectedness and support, but some experiences online may have a negative impact on self-esteem. The negative impact is not always caused by cyberbullying or a negative comment. When a child does not receive the expected or desired feedback or feels a sense of pressure to “perform” or post content, the right content, for “friends,” this pressure or stress can cause anxiety and will probably negatively affect a child’s self-esteem.

Today, parents must find a balance between mitigating the negative risks to their adolescent’s self-esteem that can happen when engaging in social media and allowing their youth to engage on social platforms. Realizing and enforcing this balance can lead to arguments or a parent’s guilt about his or her child being the outcast or “left behind” socially because he or she is not allowed to be on social media constantly.

Awareness of how much time your child spends on social media and the level of importance he or she places on social media interactions can be a telling factor into how these interactions are affecting your child’s self-esteem (Brewer, 2015). Social media’s negative effects on children may promote unhealthy behaviors like becoming isolated or irritable or experiencing a drop in grades or loss of interest in activities (Verduyn, 2017). To address these adverse effects and help their child develop social skills, parents could foster a sense of purpose through encouraging their child to engage in volunteering, sports, creative arts, clubs, or other in-person activities.

Parents are their children’s first teachers and understanding how to promote your child’s positive online interactions and build your child’s self-esteem can be done by modeling those behaviors. For example, parents may want to carefully consider if they want to post pictures of their child on social media and may want to think about the content of the photos. A “cute” picture of your child taking a bath may be embarrassing to your child. Model ethical behavior, ask permission from your children before posting online pictures or activities that involve them, and teach your children to respect the privacy of others.

Anderson, M., & Jiang, J. (2018). Teens, social media & technology 2018. Pew Research. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-technology-2018/

Brewer, G., & Kerslake, J. (2015). Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior , 48 , 255–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.073

Burrows, A.L., & Rainone, N. (2017). How many likes did I get? Purpose moderate’s links between positive social media feedback and self-esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 69 , 232–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.09.005

Erol, R. Y., & Orth, U. (2011). Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 101 (3),607–619. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024299

Koutamanis, M., Voosen, H. G., & Valkenburg, P. (2015). Adolescents’ comments in social media: Why do adolescents receive negative feedback and who is most at risk? Computers in Human Behavior , 53 , 486–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.016

Orth, U., Erol Y., & Luciano, C. (2018). Development of self-esteem from age 4 to 94 years: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin , 144 , 1045-1080. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000161

Valkenburg, M., Koutamanis, M., & Vossen, H.G. (2017). The concurrent and longitudinal relationship between adolescents’ use of social network sites and their social self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior , 76 , 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.008

Valkenburg, M., Peter, J., & Walther, J. B. (2016). Media effects: Theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology , 67 , 315–338. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pscyh-122414-033608

Verduyn, P., Ybarry, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2017). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well-being? A critical review. Social Issues and Policy Review , 11 (1), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033

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Social media and self-doubt.

How parents can help kids resist the pressure created by artfully curated social media feeds.

Writer: Rae Jacobson

Clinical Experts: Jill Emanuele, PhD , Kimberly Alexander, PsyD

What You'll Learn

How does social media affect teens?
What can parents do to help?

Social media can be fun, exciting, even helpful. But for some teens, all those pictures of awesome vacations, perfect bodies, and great-looking lives can fuel self-doubt. How can parents help teenagers have a healthier relationship with their social feeds?

Keeping teens from falling into the social media trap is harder than it sounds. Parents can start by taking it seriously. Social media plays a huge role in teenage life. Many teens never knew a world where social media didn’t exist. For them the things that happen online — fights, break-ups, likes, mean comments — are very real. When you talk about it with your teen, let them know you take their feelings seriously. For example you could say: “That comment was pretty mean. I’m sorry that happened. How are you feeling about it?”

Encourage teens to take what they see on social media with a (large) grain of salt. Asking questions can help. For example, are their friends are really the people they seem to be online? And is your child the person they seem to be online? Why does getting likes feel good? Do they feel better or worse after looking at social media? Check in regularly and if you notice your child is feeling down, ask them if their feed is helping or harming.

If you’re worried that social media is taking a toll on your child, family “unplugging” can help. That means everyone (yes, parents too) agrees not to use social media for a few days. It can help to set a goal to work towards during your detox. For example, learning to knit, or watching a series of movies as a family. Check in regularly, and notice how you feel without the social feed. If kids report feeling better, you could make the unplugging a regular thing.

In the end, remind your teen that your goal is to help them feel happy and safe. Understanding how they are affected by what they choose to do, online and off, will help.

“Look,” says Sasha, a 16-year-old junior in high school, scrolling slowly through her Instagram feed. “See: pretty coffee, pretty girl, cute cat, beach trip. It’s all like that. Everyone looks like they’re having the best day ever, all the time.”

Magazines and advertising have long been criticized for upholding dangerously unrealistic standards of success and beauty, but at least it’s acknowledged that they are idealized. The models wearing Size 0 clothing are just that: models. And even they are made-up, retouched, and photoshopped.

These days, however, the impossible standards are set much closer to home, not by celebrities and models but by classmates and friends. With social media, teens can curate their lives, and the resulting feeds read like highlight reels, showing only the best and most enviable moments while concealing efforts, struggles, and the merely ordinary aspects of day-to-day life. And there’s evidence that those images are causing distress for many kids.

Sometimes, says Sasha, looking at friends’ posts “makes you feel like everyone has it together but you.”

Hiding imperfection

For kids experiencing anxiety or depression, carefully edited social media posts can act as a smoke screen, masking serious issues behind pretend perfection and making it harder for parents or friends to see that they need help.

“It’s important to remember that just posting edited pictures online or pretending your life is a little more glamorous than it is, is not in itself a problem,” says Jill Emanuele , PhD, Senior Director of the Mood Disorders Center at the Child Mind Institute. “Social media alone is unlikely to be at the heart of the issue, but it can make a difficult situation even harder.”

Teens who have created idealized online personas may feel frustrated and depressed at the gap between who they pretend to be online and who they truly are.

Other people’s perfection

Another, more prevalent problem, says Dr. Emanuele, is that for some teens their social feeds can become fuel for negative feelings they have about themselves. Kids struggling with self-doubt read into their friends’ images what they feel they are lacking.

“Kids view social media through the lens of their own lives,” says Dr. Emanuele. “If they’re struggling to stay on top of things or suffering from low self-esteem, they’re more likely to interpret images of peers having fun as confirmation that they’re doing badly compared to their friends.”

Difficult to resist

Sasha and her friend Jacob, 15, agree that constant exposure to social media has had an impact on how they view their peers and themselves. “It’s like you know it isn’t making you happy,” says Jacob, referring to the pictures his friends post on Instagram. “But you still look.”

Even the knowledge that these images mask serious problems doesn’t seem to alleviate the pressure they cause.

“I knew a girl who had an eating disorder. We all knew it. It got so bad that she ended up going to a treatment center, but when she put pictures up of herself on the beach looking super-thin everyone liked them anyway,” says Sasha.

Logically, she says, she knew the pictures weren’t current and the girl was very ill, but that didn’t stop her from feeling a twinge of jealousy. “I remember thinking ‘I wish I looked like that’ and then being horrified at myself.”

Sasha also acknowledges the trouble of “liking” images that in this case provided dangerous validation. “It’s like we were saying, ‘Good job.’ ”

Social media and teenagers: How to help

What can parents do to help kids build a safe and reasonable relationship with social media before they’re out on their own?

Take social media seriously. Don’t underestimate the role social media plays in the lives of teenagers. Visual images are very powerful, and teenagers today, the things that happen online—slights, break-ups, likes, or negative comments—are very real. When you talk about social media make sure you’re really listening and be careful not to dismiss or minimize their experiences.
Encourage them to think outside the (crop) box. When you talk to your child about social media, encourage them to explore it in a more critical way. A great way to start is to try asking them what they think has been cropped or edited out of their friends’ “perfect” pictures and why. That can lead to larger questions. Do you think your friends are really the people they appear to be online? Are you? What is it about getting “likes” that feels good? How does looking at social media affect your mood?
Model a healthy response to failure. Kids need to learn that it’s okay to fail. Instead of minimizing your own failures, let your kids see you being open about them and accepting them with grace. Show them that you treat failure not as something to be ashamed of, but something to learn from.
Praise (and show) effort. When your child has worked hard on something, praise her efforts no matter what the outcome. It’s also helpful to show your own efforts, especially those that don’t end in success. Being proud and open about your own work sets a powerful example for your child.
Go on a “social holiday.” If you’re worried that your child is getting too wrapped up in social media, try taking a social holiday. And if you’re asking your child to take a break, do the same yourself. You may find it just as challenging as kids do.
Trust people, not pictures. Finally, don’t rely on social media to let you know how your child is really doing. They may post smiling selfies all day long, but if they seem unhappy or sound unhappy on the phone, don’t let it go . Make sure they know it’s safe to talk to you by encouraging them to share their feelings and supporting them when they do. Reassure them that you’re proud of them for reaching out. “I’m so glad you called. It sounds like you’re feeling really overwhelmed, I’m here and I love you. Let’s talk this through together.”

In the end, as a parent you want your child to be happy and successful. But making sure they know you love them and you’re proud of them as they are — unfiltered, unedited, imperfect — will help them build confidence they need to accept themselves and stay safe and healthy when they’re out on their own.

Frequently Asked Questions

Social media can make it look as though everyone else’s life is perfect. Impossible standards can be set not just by celebrities and models but by classmates and friends curating and filtering their pictures. There is evidence that this can negatively impact self-esteem.

Social media can be harmful for teens’ mental health. Comparing themselves to others can undermine self-esteem, and a teen’s own carefully edited, perfect-looking feed can mask serious issues, making it harder for friends or parents or to see that they need help.

Parents can help teens by not dismissing the impact of social media. Check in regularly and if you notice your child is feeling down, ask them to think about how their social media use is helping or harming them. Encourage them to drop feeds and cut back on habits that are making them feel bad.

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